Genetics-guided therapy in neuroendocrine carcinoma: response to BRAF- and MEK-inhibitors.

Background: Metastatic neuroendocrine carcinoma (NEC) is associated with short survival. Other than platinum-based chemotherapy, there is no clear standard regimen. Current guidelines suggest that combination treatment with BRAF-inhibitors should be considered for patients with BRAF V600E-mutated NEC. However, since only eight such patients have been reported in the literature, our object was to confirm the validity of this recommendation. Methods: This was a single-center retrospective cohort study conducted at Uppsala University Hospital. The included patients 1) had a histopathologically confirmed diagnosis of NEC, 2) were diagnosed between January 1st, 2018 and December 31st, 2023, 3) had tumor tissue genetically screened by a broad next-generation sequencing (NGS) panel, and 4) showed a tumor mutation for which there is a currently available targeted therapy. Results: We screened 48 patients diagnosed with NEC between January 1st, 2018 and December 31st, 2023. Twelve had been analyzed with a broad NGS-panel, and two had a targetable mutation. Both these patients harbored a BRAF V600E-mutated colon-NEC and were treated with BRAF- and MEK-inhibitors dabrafenib and trametinib in second-line. At first radiological evaluation (RECIST 1.1), both patients had a reduction of tumor size, which decreased by 31 and 40%. Both had short response periods, and their overall survival was 12 and 9 months. Conclusions: BRAF-mutated NEC is sensitive to treatment with BRAF- and MEK-inhibitor combination. These results further support that DNA sequencing should be considered as standard of care in NECs to screen for potential treatment targets.

Timing and Ideal Patient for an Appropriate Search for Somatic RET Mutation in Medullary Thyroid Cancer.

RET somatic mutation analysis in sporadic MTC should be guided by postoperative evaluation results.

Spontaneous and Treatment-Related Changes of Serum Calcitonin in Medullary Thyroid Cancer: Long-Term Experience in a Patient With Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia Type 2B.

PURPOSE: Medullary thyroid carcinoma (MTC) in MEN2B syndrome is associated with germline RET mutation. Patients harboring de novo mutations are usually diagnosed at more advanced disease stages. We present a young woman with Met918Th mutation diagnosed with stage IV MTC at age 10 years. METHODS: The disease progressed despite total thyroidectomy and multiple surgical interventions for cervical lymph node recurrences, leading to distant metastases in the fifth year after the initial diagnosis. Subsequently, she underwent five different types of tyrosine kinase inhibitor (TKI) treatments. The 17-year disease course was divided into periods defined by four surgical interventions and sequential treatment intervals with four multikinase (sunitinib, vandetanib, cabozantinib, and lenvatinib) and one RET-selective TKI (selpercatinib). Tumor growth for different phases of spontaneous development and drug treatment intervals was characterized by changes in serial log-transformed calcitonin measurements (n = 114). RESULTS: Three operations (one for calcitonin-producing adrenal pheochromocytoma) were associated with drops in calcitonin levels. All of the nonselective TKIs were stopped due to adverse effects. As reflected by the negative calcitonin doubling rate, the best treatment response was observed with selpercatinib, which was associated with an initial large drop followed by a decreasing calcitonin trajectory over 514 days without any major side effects. CONCLUSION: This case of MEN2B medullary thyroid cancer with long-term survival presents how the effectiveness of different treatment modalities can be estimated using log-transformed calcitonin levels. Furthermore, our experience supports the view that serial calcitonin measurements may be more sensitive than radiological follow-up in advanced MTC. Our patient also represents a new case of rarely reported calcitonin-producing pheochromocytomas.

Integrated mutational landscape analysis of poorly differentiated high-grade neuroendocrine carcinoma of the uterine cervix.

High-grade neuroendocrine cervical cancers (NETc) are exceedingly rare, highly aggressive tumors. We analyzed 64 NETc tumor samples by whole-exome sequencing (WES). Human papillomavirus DNA was detected in 65.6% (42/64) of the tumors. Recurrent mutations were identified in PIK3CA, KMT2D/MLL2, K-RAS, ARID1A, NOTCH2, and RPL10. The top mutated genes included RB1, ARID1A, PTEN, KMT2D/MLL2, and WDFY3, a gene not yet implicated in NETc. Somatic CNV analysis identified two copy number gains (3q27.1 and 19q13.12) and five copy number losses (1p36.21/5q31.3/6p22.2/9q21.11/11p15.5). Also, gene fusions affecting the ACLY-CRHR1 and PVT1-MYC genes were identified in one of the eight samples subjected to RNA sequencing. To resolve evolutionary history, multiregion WES in NETc admixed with adenocarcinoma cells was performed (i.e., mixed-NETc). Phylogenetic analysis of mixed-NETc demonstrated that adenocarcinoma and neuroendocrine elements derive from a common precursor with mutations typical of adenocarcinomas. Over one-third (22/64) of NETc demonstrated a mutator phenotype of C > T at CpG consistent with deficiencies in MBD4, a member of the base excision repair (BER) pathway. Mutations in the PI3K/AMPK pathways were identified in 49/64 samples. We used two patient-derived-xenografts (PDX) (i.e., NET19 and NET21) to evaluate the activity of pan-HER (afatinib), PIK3CA (copanlisib), and ATR (elimusertib) inhibitors, alone and in combination. PDXs harboring alterations in the ERBB2/PI3K/AKT/mTOR/ATR pathway were sensitive to afatinib, copanlisib, and elimusertib (P < 0.001 vs. controls). However, combinations of copanlisib/afatinib and copanlisib/elimusertib were significantly more effective in controlling NETc tumor growth. These findings define the genetic landscape of NETc and suggest that a large subset of these highly lethal malignancies might benefit from existing targeted therapies.

Prognostic Model for High-Grade Neuroendocrine Carcinoma of the Lung Incorporating Genomic Profiling and Poly (ADP-ribose) Polymerase-1 Expression.

PURPOSE: High-grade neuroendocrine carcinoma (HGNEC) of the lung is an aggressive cancer with a complex biology. We aimed to explore the prognostic value of genetic aberrations and poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP1) expression in HGNEC and to establish a novel prognostic model. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We retrospectively enrolled 191 patients with histologically confirmed HGNEC of the lung. Tumor tissues were analyzed using PARP1 immunohistochemistry (IHC; N = 191) and comprehensive cancer panel sequencing (n = 102). Clinical and genetic data were used to develop an integrated Cox hazards model. RESULTS: Strong PARP1 IHC expression (intensity 3) was observed in 153 of 191 (80.1%) patients, and the mean PARP1 H-score was 285 (range, 5-300). To develop an integrated Cox hazard model, our data set included information from 357 gene mutations and 19 clinical profiles. When the targeted mutation profiles were combined with clinical profiles, 12 genes (ATRX, CCND2, EXT2, FGFR2, FOXO1, IL21R, MAF, TGM7, TNFAIP3, TP53, TSHR, and DDR2) were identified as prognostic factors for survival. The integrated Cox hazard model, which combines mutation profiles with a baseline model, outperformed the baseline model (incremental area under the curve 0.84 v 0.78; P = 8.79e-12). The integrated model stratified patients into high- and low-risk groups with significantly different disease-free and overall survival (integrated model: hazard ratio, 7.14 [95% CI, 4.07 to 12.54]; P < .01; baseline model: 4.38 [2.56 to 7.51]; P < .01). CONCLUSION: We introduced a new prognostic model for HGNEC that combines genetic and clinical data. The integrated Cox hazard model outperformed the baseline model in predicting the survival of patients with HGNEC.

Management of Advanced Medullary Thyroid Carcinoma: Current Systemic Therapy Options.

The current rapid development of more selective and effective drugs for the treatment of thyroid cancer has open a new era in the treatment of patients with this condition, in the past limited to the possibility of only radioactive iodine for well differentiated tumor and surgery for medullary thyroid carcinoma (MTC). The treatment of advanced medullary thyroid carcinoma has evolved in the last few years and options for patients with advanced disease are now available. Multikinase inhibitors (MKIs) with nonselective RET inhibition like Vandetanib and Cabozantinib were approved for the treatment of MTC, although the efficacy is limited due to the lack of specificity resulting in a higher rate of drug-related adverse events, leading to subsequent dose reductions, or discontinuation, and the development of a resistance mechanism like seen on the RET Val804 gatekeeper mutations. MTC is associated with mutations in the RET protooncogene, and new highly selective RET inhibitors have been developed including Selpercatinib and Pralsetinib, drugs that have demonstrate excellent results in clinical trials, and efficacy even in the presence of gatekeeper mutations. However, despite their efficacy and great tolerability, mechanisms of resistance have been described, such as the RET solvent front mutations. Due to this, the need of constant evolution and drug research is necessary to overcome the emergence of resistance mechanisms.

Single-Cell Transcriptome Analysis of Small Cell Neuroendocrine Carcinoma of the Endometrium Reveals ISL1 as a Potential Biomarker for Diagnosis and Treatment.

BACKGROUND: As a dedifferentiated tumor, small cell endometrial neuroendocrine tumors (NETs) are rare and frequently diagnosed at an advanced stage with a poor prognosis. Current treatment recommendations are often extrapolated from histologically similar tumors in other sites or based on retrospective studies. The exploration for diagnostic and therapeutic markers in small cell NETs is of great significance. METHODS: In this study, we conducted single-cell RNA sequencing on a specimen obtained from a patient diagnosed with small cell endometrial neuroendocrine carcinoma (SCNEC) based on pathology. We revealed the cell map and intratumoral heterogeneity of the cancer cells through data analysis. Further, we validated the function of ISL LIM Homeobox 1 (ISL1) in vitro in an established neuroendocrine cell line. Finally, we examined the association between ISL1 and tumor staging in small cell lung cancer (SCLC) patient samples. RESULTS: We observed the significant upregulation of ISL1 expression in tumor cells that showed high expression of the neuroepithelial markers. Additionally, in vitro cell function experiments demonstrated that the high ISL1 expression group exhibited markedly higher cell proliferation and migration abilities compared to the low expression group. Finally, we showed that the expression level of ISL1 was correlated with SCLC stages. CONCLUSIONS: ISL1 protein in NETs shows promise as a potential biomarker for diagnosis and treatment.

Patient-derived tumoroid models of pulmonary large-cell neuroendocrine carcinoma: a promising tool for personalized medicine and developing novel therapeutic strategies.

Pulmonary large-cell neuroendocrine carcinoma (LCNEC), a disease with poor prognosis, is classified as pulmonary high-grade neuroendocrine carcinoma, along with small-cell lung cancer. However, given its infrequent occurrence, only a limited number of preclinical models have been established. Here, we established three LCNEC tumoroids for long-term culture. Whole-exome sequencing revealed that these tumoroids inherited genetic mutations from their parental tumors; two were classified as small-cell carcinoma (S-LCNEC) and one as non-small cell carcinoma (N-LCNEC). Xenografts from these tumoroids in immunodeficient mice mimicked the pathology of the parent LCNEC, and one reproduced the mixed-tissue types of combined LCNEC with a component of adenocarcinoma. Drug sensitivity tests using these LCNEC tumoroids enabled the evaluation of therapeutic agent efficacy. Based on translational research, we found that a CDK4/6 inhibitor might be effective for N-LCNEC and that Aurora A kinase inhibitors might be suitable for S-LCNEC or LCNEC with MYC amplification. These results highlight the value of preclinical tumoroid models in understanding the pathogenesis of rare cancers and developing treatments. LCNEC showed a high success rate in tumoroid establishment, indicating its potential application in personalized medicine.

Colorectal neuroendocrine carcinoma and mixed neuroendocrine-non-neuroendocrine neoplasm: Prognostic factors and PD-L1 expression.

Colorectal neuroendocrine carcinoma (NEC) and mixed neuroendocrine-non-neuroendocrine neoplasm (MiNEN) are rare malignancies with unclear boundaries and poor prognoses. Our study aimed to conduct a comparative analysis of these diseases, identify prognostic factors, and explore potential therapeutic targets. We collected and analyzed clinicopathological data of NEC and MiNEN in our hospital from 2011 to 2020. Immunohistochemical staining for PD-L1, BRAF V600E, and mismatch repair proteins was performed. We identified 14 NEC and 7 MiNEN cases. Demographic data, including median overall survival (17.1 months for NEC and 18.5 months for MiNEN), did not significantly differ. NEC showed a higher tendency to occur in the rectum and sigmoid colon (p = 0.025) and had fewer cases with metastatic adenocarcinoma components in lymph nodes (p = 0.009) compared to MiNEN. Adverse prognostic factors were age ≥70 years (p = 0.012), N2 nodal status (p = 0.032), and stage IV disease (p = 0.013) based on multivariate Cox regression analysis. We identified five PD-L1 positive cases, two BRAF V600E mutated cases, and one Lynch syndrome case with MSH2 and MSH6 loss. Patients with colorectal NEC or MiNEN exhibited poor survival rates. Adverse prognostic factors included older age, N2 nodal status, and distant metastasis. Potential therapeutic avenues such as immune checkpoint and BRAF inhibitors were suggested for patients with these carcinomas.

RET kinase inhibitors for the treatment of RET-altered thyroid cancers: Current knowledge and future directions.

RET gain-of-function mutations are the most common drivers in medullary thyroid carcinoma, while RET fusions are identified in 5-10% of papillary thyroid carcinomas. Thus, RET plays a major role in the tumorigenesis of thyroid neoplasia, making it a valuable therapeutic target. Over a decade ago, multikinase inhibitors (MKIs) were first shown to have variable degrees of anti-RET activity. Despite some clinical efficacy in RET-altered thyroid cancers, significant off-target activity of MKIs led to marked toxicities limiting their use. More recently, two potent, highly selective RET inhibitors, selpercatinib and pralsetinib, were shown to have notable efficacy in RET-altered cancers, associated with more tolerable side effect profiles than those of MKIs. However, these treatments are non-curative, and emerging evidence suggests that patients who progress on therapy acquire mutations conferring drug resistance. Thus, the quest for a more definitive treatment for advanced, RET-altered thyroid cancers continues. This year we celebrate the 30th anniversary of the association of germline mutations of the RET proto-oncogene with the multiple endocrine neoplasia (MEN) type 2 syndromes. In this timely review, we summarize the current state-of-the-art treatment strategies for RET-altered thyroid cancers, their limitations, as well as future therapeutic avenues.

UCHL1 is a potential molecular indicator and therapeutic target for neuroendocrine carcinomas.

Neuroendocrine carcinomas, such as neuroendocrine prostate cancer and small-cell lung cancer, commonly have a poor prognosis and limited therapeutic options. We report that ubiquitin carboxy-terminal hydrolase L1 (UCHL1), a deubiquitinating enzyme, is elevated in tissues and plasma from patients with neuroendocrine carcinomas. Loss of UCHL1 decreases tumor growth and inhibits metastasis of these malignancies. UCHL1 maintains neuroendocrine differentiation and promotes cancer progression by regulating nucleoporin, POM121, and p53. UCHL1 binds, deubiquitinates, and stabilizes POM121 to regulate POM121-associated nuclear transport of E2F1 and c-MYC. Treatment with the UCHL1 inhibitor LDN-57444 slows tumor growth and metastasis across neuroendocrine carcinomas. The combination of UCHL1 inhibitors with cisplatin, the standard of care used for neuroendocrine carcinomas, significantly delays tumor growth in pre-clinical settings. Our study reveals mechanisms of UCHL1 function in regulating the progression of neuroendocrine carcinomas and identifies UCHL1 as a therapeutic target and potential molecular indicator for diagnosing and monitoring treatment responses in these malignancies.

Diagnosis and management of neuroendocrine prostate cancer.

BACKGROUND: Although most patients with prostate cancer (PC) respond to initial androgen deprivation therapy (ADT), castration-resistant disease invariably develops. Progression to treatment-emergent neuroendocrine PC (t-NEPC) represents a unique mechanism of resistance to androgen receptor (AR)-targeted therapy in which lineage plasticity and neuroendocrine differentiation induce a phenotypic switch from an AR-driven adenocarcinoma to an AR-independent NEPC. t-NEPC is characterized by an aggressive clinical course, increased resistance to AR-targeted therapies, and a poor overall prognosis. METHODS: This review provides an overview of our current knowledge of NEPC, with a focus on the unmet needs, diagnosis, and clinical management of t-NEPC. RESULTS: Evidence extrapolated from the literature on small cell lung cancer or data from metastatic castration-resistant PC (mCRPC) cohorts enriched for t-NEPC suggests an increased sensitivity to platinum-based chemotherapy. However, optimal strategies for managing t-NEPC have not been established, and prospective clinical trial data are limited. Intertumoral heterogeneity within a given patient, as well as the lack of robust molecular or clinical biomarkers for early detection, often lead to delays in diagnosis and prolonged treatment with suboptimal strategies (i.e., conventional chemohormonal therapies for mCRPC), which may further contribute to poor outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: Recent advances in genomic and molecular classification of NEPC and the development of novel biomarkers may facilitate an early diagnosis, help to identify promising therapeutic targets, and improve the selection of patients most likely to benefit from NEPC-targeted therapies.

[Advances of pathological diagnosis and molecular pathology of lung neuroendocrine neoplasms].

The pathological classification and diagnostic criteria for lung neuroendocrine neoplasms (NENs) in the 2021 World Health Organization (WHO) lung tumor classification are similar to the prior classifications. However, the advances on the molecular studies of lung NENs have shown that both small cell lung carcinoma and large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma are highly heterogeneous tumors with neuroendocrine characteristics and can be subclassified based on the features of genomics or transcriptomics, which are valuable in the diagnosis of lung NENs subtypes and patient treatment. In addition, it is necessary to interpret emerging concepts such as "lung neuroendocrine tumor G3" and "histological transformation" from pathological perspectives, as well as to know the novel neuroendocrine biomarkers such as INSM1 and POU2F3. This article summarized the diagnostic changes and the advances of molecular pathology of lung NENs based on the latest WHO classification and molecular research.

An in-silico analysis reveals further evidence of an aggressive subset of lung carcinoids sharing molecular features of high-grade neuroendocrine neoplasms.

Little is known as to whether there may be any pathogenetic link between pulmonary carcinoids and neuroendocrine carcinomas (NECs). A gene signature we previously found to cluster pulmonary carcinoids, large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma (LCNEC) and small cell lung carcinoma (SCLC), and which encompassed MEN1, MYC, MYCL1, RICTOR, RB1, SDHA, SRC and TP53 mutations or copy number variations (CNVs), was used to reclassify an independent cohort of 54 neuroendocrine neoplasms (NENs) [31 typical carcinoids (TC), 11 atypical carcinoids (AC) and 12 SCLC], by means of transcriptome and mutation data. Unsupervised clustering analysis identified two histology-independent clusters, namely CL1 and CL2, where 17/42 (40.5%) carcinoids and all the SCLC samples fell into the latter. CL2 carcinoids affected survival adversely, were enriched in T to G transversions or T > C/C > T transitions in the context of specific mutational signatures, presented with at least 1.5-fold change (FC) increase of gene mutations including TSC2, SMARCA2, SMARCA4, ERBB4 and PTPRZ1, differed for gene expression and showed epigenetic changes in charge of MYC and MTORC1 pathways, cellular senescence, inflammation, high-plasticity cell state and immune system exhaustion. Similar results were also found in two other independent validation sets comprising 101 lung NENs (24 carcinoids, 21 SCLC and 56 LCNEC) and 30 carcinoids, respectively. We herein confirmed an unexpected sharing of molecular traits along the spectrum of lung NENs, with a subset of genomically distinct aggressive carcinoids sharing molecular features of high-grade neuroendocrine neoplasms.

Clinical impact of mixed pulmonary carcinoma and carcinoid: the driver from their mono-clonal origin.

The combination of neuroendocrine/non neuroendocrine lung tumors (CNNELT) mentioned in the last edition of the World Health Organization (WHO) of Thoracic Tumors refers to small cell carcinoma (SCLC) or large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma (LCNEC) mixed with any other non-small cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC). Typical Carcinoid (TC)/Atypical Carcinoid (AC) combined with NSCLC is not included among this category. However, case reports of TC/AC combined with NSCLC have been described. We previously reported 2 cases of lung adenocarcinoma (LUA) mixed with carcinoid sharing mutations in both components supporting the hypothesis of a clonal origin. We extended our analysis to other four cases of mixed NSCLC-carcinoid by performing targeted-DNA and RNA-based NGS analysis in both primary and their paired lymph nodes metastasis. In all cases, LUA and AC components shared at least 1 common mutation (KRAS driver mutation p.Gly12Val in cases 1 and 3, AKAP13-RET fusion in case 2, and missense KRAS driver mutation p.Gly12Ala in case 4, reinforcing the hypothesis of a clonal origin. Moreover, the same mutation was detected in the metastasis constituted only by AC (cases 2 and 4). Although it is a rare malignancy in the lung, mixed LUA and TC/AC could be included among the histotypes for which a deep molecular characterization of both components is needed to identify the presence of potential druggable genetic alterations.

Implication of cytoplasmic p53 expression in pulmonary neuroendocrine carcinoma using next-generation sequencing analysis.

AIMS: Cytoplasmic p53 expression indicates a high frequency of TP53 abnormalities in gynaecological carcinoma. However, the implication of this expression in pulmonary neuroendocrine carcinoma (NEC) remains unclear. Thus, our study aimed to fill this research gap. METHODS AND RESULTS: Immunohistochemistry (IHC) of p53 was performed on 146 cases of resected small-cell lung carcinoma and large-cell NEC, and next-generation sequencing was conducted on cases showing cytoplasmic and wild-type p53 expression. IHC revealed overexpression in 57% of the cases (n = 83), complete absence in 31% (n = 45), cytoplasmic expression in 8% (n = 12) and wild-type expression in 4% (n = 6) of the cases. TP53 mutations were identified in nine of the 13 cases with available genetic analysis. The TP53 mutation rates in cases with cytoplasmic and wild-type p53 expression were 88% (seven of eight) and 40% (two of five), respectively. All seven cases showing cytoplasmic expression with TP53 mutations harboured loss-of-function type mutations: four had mutations in the DNA-binding domain, two in the nuclear localisation domain and one in the tetramerisation domain. Clinically, cases with cytoplasmic p53 expression had a poor prognosis similar to that in cases with p53 overexpression or complete absence. CONCLUSIONS: Cytoplasmic p53 expression in patients with pulmonary NEC suggests a high TP53 mutation rate, which is associated with a poor prognosis similar to that in patients with p53 overexpression or complete absence. This cytoplasmic expression should not be misidentified as a wild-type expression. This is the first report, to our knowledge, that demonstrates the implication of cytoplasmic p53 expression in pulmonary NEC.

Tumor Grade and Molecular Characteristics Associated with Survival in Sporadic Medullary Thyroid Carcinoma.

Background: The International Medullary Thyroid Carcinoma Grading System (IMTCGS) divides medullary thyroid carcinoma (MTC) into two categories, high- and low-grade tumors, which has a profound impact on patient outcomes. The aim of this study was to explore the association between IMTCGS grading, clinical data, and molecular status in sporadic MTC. Methods: A retrospective cohort study was performed on consecutive sporadic MTCs from patients undergoing initial surgery between January 2000 and January 2022 at the Padua Endocrine Surgery Unit. Clinical, pathological, and follow-up data were collected, tumors were graded, and somatic mutations of RET and RAS genes were analyzed. Patient outcomes were based on Ct levels and MTC-related deaths. Survival analyses were carried out employing the Kaplan-Meier method and the log-rank test. A Cox proportional hazard regression model was employed for multivariable survival analysis with the following covariates: somatic RET mutation, MTC stage at diagnosis, sex, age at diagnosis, and IMTCGS grade. Results: We included 141 consecutive sporadic MTCs. The median follow-up was 80.0 months (interquartile ranges: 41.5-122.5 months). Seventeen patients (12.1%) died from disease-related causes. 107/141 (76.9%) were classified as low-grade tumors, 32/141 (23.1%) as high-grade. Patients carrying a RET mutation had more aggressive features and shorter disease-specific survival (DSS) (p = 0.001) and were more frequently classified high-grade than low-grade MTC (p < 0.001). At multivariable survival analysis, only IMTCGS grading was independently associated with DSS (hazard ratio 8.8 [confidence interval: 2.7-28.3], p = 0.005). RET mutations, in particular RET-M918T, were more frequent in high-grade than in low-grade MTC (68.8% vs. 29.4% mutated in RET, 46.9% vs. 12.7% mutated in RET-M918T; p < 0.001). None of the high-grade tumors was mutated in the RAS gene, but the mutation was present in 11.8% of low-grade tumors. Conclusions: IMTCGS grading was associated with DSS independently of other clinical, pathological, and molecular factors. Moreover, MTC grading was associated with RET and RAS patterns, which explains, at least in part, the molecular basis of the aggressive behavior of high-grade MTC.

Real-World comprehensive genomic profiling data for diagnostic clarity in pulmonary Large-Cell neuroendocrine carcinoma.

BACKGROUND: Pulmonary large-cell neuroendocrine carcinoma (LCNEC) is an uncommon subtype of lung cancer believed to represent a spectrum of tumors sharing characteristics of both small cell lung cancer (SCLC) and non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Other groups have proposed genomic LCNEC subtypes, including small cell-like, non-small cell-like, and carcinoid-like subtypes. The primary goal of this study was to better define the NSCLC-like subtype with comprehensive genomic profiling (CGP). METHODS: An institutional database was queried to identify tissue specimens (TBx, N = 1,426) and liquid biopsies (LBx, N = 39) submitted for CGP during routine clinical care (8/2014 - 7/2023) with a disease ontology of LCNEC. TBx were profiled with FoundationOne® (F1) or F1CDx, using hybrid-capture technology to detect genomic alterations (GAs). RESULTS: 1,426 LCNEC samples were genomically profiled. The presence of RB1 and TP53 genomic alterations (GAs) were used to define a SCLC-like subtype (n = 557). A carcinoid-like group was defined by the presence of MEN1 mutation in the absence of TP53 GAs (n = 25). The remaining 844 samples were compared to the SCLC-like group and GAs enriched relative to the SCLC-like samples with a false discovery rate (FDR) < 0.0001 were used to define a NSCLC-like group. These NSCLC-like subtype-defining GAs included SMARCA4, KRAS, FGF3/4/19, STK11, CDKN2A/B, MTAP, and CCND1. Under this schema, 530 samples were classified as NSCLC-like and 314 remained unclassified. CONCLUSIONS: Large-scale CGP can better characterize biologically distinct molecular subtypes in LCNEC. Further studies to define how these molecular subtypes may help inform treatment decisions in this complex and challenging malignancy are warranted.