Cost-effectiveness of ablation of ventricular tachycardia in ischaemic cardiomyopathy: limitations in the trial evidence base.

Objective: Catheter ablation is an important treatment for ventricular tachycardia (VT) that reduces the frequency of episodes of VT. We sought to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of catheter ablation versus antiarrhythmic drug (AAD) therapy. Methods: A decision-analytic Markov model was used to calculate the costs and health outcomes of catheter ablation or AAD treatment of VT for a hypothetical cohort of patients with ischaemic cardiomyopathy and an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator. The health states and input parameters of the model were informed by patient-reported health-related quality of life (HRQL) data using randomised clinical trial (RCT)-level evidence wherever possible. Costs were calculated from a 2018 UK perspective. Results: Catheter ablation versus AAD therapy had an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) of £144 150 (€161 448) per quality-adjusted life-year gained, over a 5-year time horizon. This ICER was driven by small differences in patient-reported HRQL between AAD therapy and catheter ablation. However, only three of six RCTs had measured patient-reported HRQL, and when this was done, it was assessed infrequently. Using probabilistic sensitivity analyses, the likelihood of catheter ablation being cost-effective was only 11%, assuming a willingness-to-pay threshold of £30 000 used by the UK's National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Conclusion: Catheter ablation of VT is unlikely to be cost-effective compared with AAD therapy based on the current randomised trial evidence. However, better designed studies incorporating detailed and more frequent quality of life assessments are needed to provide more robust and informed cost-effectiveness analyses.

Peripartum cardiomyopathy with co-incident preeclampsia: A cohort study of clinical risk factors and outcomes among commercially insured women.

BACKGROUND: Peripartum cardiomyopathy (PPCM) and preeclampsia are strongly associated, yet a description of risk factors for PPCM among women with preeclampsia is currently lacking. Additionally, the effect of preeclampsia on PPCM-related outcomes is not well known. METHODS: We constructed a cohort of delivery admissions from 2011 to 2014 using a large US administrative database (Marketscan). We assessed risk factors for the development of PPCM among women with preeclampsia. We compared the risks of major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE) at 6 months between PPCM with co-incident preeclampsia (pePPCM) and PPCM without preeclampsia (npePPCM). RESULTS: We included 1,024,035 pregnancies, of which 64,503 (6.3%) had preeclampsia. A total of 874 had PPCM (283 with preeclampsia and 591 without preeclampsia). Among women with preeclampsia, clinical risk factors for PPCM consisted in chronic kidney disease (OR 3.18, 95% CI [1.51, 6.69]), multiple pregnancy (OR 2.11, 95% CI [1.49, 2.98]), chronic hypertension (OR 1.88, 95% CI [1.43, 2.47]), advanced maternal age (OR 1.82, 95% CI [1.42, 2.33]), and type 2 diabetes (OR 1.58, 95% CI [1.00, 2.48]). Women with pePPCM had a higher risk of MACE than women with npePPCM (adjusted RR 1.29, 95% CI [1.06, 1.57]) due to increased rates of clinical heart failure and pulmonary embolism in the pePPCM group. Mortality did not differ between groups. CONCLUSION: Preeclamptic women with risk factors for PPCM and women with pePPCM at increased risk of MACE should be followed closely. Further studies are required to determine whether preeclampsia affects the long-term prognosis of women with PPCM.

Conservative gadolinium administration to patients with Duchenne muscular dystrophy: decreasing exposure, cost, and time, without change in medical management.

Cardiac MR (CMR) is increasingly used to assess for cardiac involvement in patients with Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD). The frequent use of gadolinium based contrast agents (GBCAs) has been called into question with reports of intracranial gadolinium deposition in patients receiving multiple administrations. We adopted a conservative GBCA administration policy, limiting the frequency of GBCA exposure in patients with previously documented late gadolinium enhancement. The aim of our study was to evaluate the clinical effects of this policy change. Data were retrospectively reviewed on 405 consecutive patients with DMD who underwent CMR evaluation. Patients were grouped into conservative GBCA administration or historical control. CMR reports were evaluated and clinical reports were reviewed to determine actionable changes. Ohio Medicaid reimbursements were used to estimate costs. A total of 187 patients comprised the conservative GBCA group and 218 patients the historical cohort. The conservative GBCA group had lower contrast administration rates (84% vs. 99%, p < 0.0001), shorter scan times (35.2 vs. 39.0 min, p < 0.0001), and lower estimated medical costs ($339 vs. $351/study). There was no change regarding the initial presence of first-time late gadolinium enhancement, and no difference in actionable change. Contrast administration substantially decreased 7 months post-policy change (65%) compared to the initial 7 months (96%, p < 0.0001). In the current era with unclear concern for intracranial gadolinium deposition, thoughtful GBCA administration is warranted in patients anticipated to undergo multiple CMRs. Our updated approach has resulted in fewer patients receiving contrast, shorter scan times, and less medical costs, without appreciable changes to patient management.

Economic value of a therapeutic Chagas vaccine for indeterminate and Chagasic cardiomyopathy patients.

BACKGROUND: Therapeutic vaccines to prevent Chagas disease progression to cardiomyopathy are under development because the only available medications (benznidazole and nifurtimox) are limited by their efficacy, long treatment course, and side effects. Better understanding the potential clinical and economic value of such vaccines can help guide development and implementation. METHODS: We developed a computational Chagas Markov model to evaluate the clinical and economic value of a therapeutic vaccine given in conjunction with benznidazole in indeterminate and chronic Chagas patients. Scenarios explored the vaccine's impact on reducing drug treatment dosage, duration, and adverse events, and risk of disease progression. RESULTS: When administering standard-of-care benznidazole to 1000 indeterminate patients, 148 discontinued treatment and 219 progressed to chronic disease, resulting in 119 Chagas-related deaths and 2293 DALYs, costing $18.9 million in lifetime societal costs. Compared to benznidazole-only, therapeutic vaccination administered with benznidazole (25-75% reduction in standard dose and duration), resulted in 37-111 more patients (of 1000) completing treatment, preventing 11-219 patients from progressing, 6-120 deaths, and 108-2229 DALYs (5-100% progression risk reduction), saving ≤$16,171 per patient. When vaccinating determinate Kuschnir class 1 Chagas patients, 10-197 fewer patients further progressed compared to benznidazole-only, averting 11-228 deaths and 144-3037 DALYs (5-100% progression risk reduction), saving ≤$34,059 per person. When vaccinating Kuschnir class 2 patients, 13-279 fewer progressed (279 with benznidazole-only), averting 13-692 deaths and 283-10,785 DALYs (5-100% progression risk reduction), saving ≤$89,759. Therapeutic vaccination was dominant (saved costs and provided health benefits) with ≥ 5% progression risk reduction, except when only reducing drug treatment regimen and adverse events, but remained cost-effective when costing <$200. CONCLUSIONS: Our study helps outline the thresholds at which a therapeutic Chagas vaccine may be cost-effective (e.g., <5% reduction in preventing cardiac progression, 25% reduction in benznidazole treatment doses and duration) and cost-saving (e.g., ≥5% and 25%, respectively).

Etiologies, Predictors, and Economic Impact of 30-Day Readmissions Among Patients With Peripartum Cardiomyopathy.

Peripartum cardiomyopathy (PPCM) is a pregnancy-associated cause of heart failure. Given the significant impact of heart failure on healthcare, we sought to identify etiologies and predictive factors for readmission in PPCM. We queried the 2013 to 2014 National Readmissions Database to identify patients admitted with a diagnosis of PPCM. Patients who were readmitted within 30 days were evaluated to identify etiologies and predictors of readmission. We identified 6,977 index admissions with PPCM. Of the 6,880 (98.6%) patients who survived the index hospitalization, 30-day readmission rate was 13%. Seventy-six percent of readmitted patients were admitted once, and the other 24% were readmitted at least twice within 30 days of discharge. Length of stay was ≥8 days (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 2.80, 95% confidence interval [CI] 2.08 to 3.77), multiparity (aOR 2.07, 95% CI 1.09 to 3.92), coronary artery disease (aOR 2.28, 95% CI 1.42 to 3.67), and long-term anticoagulation use (aOR 2.51, 95% CI 1.73 to 3.64) were independently associated with increased risk of 30-day readmission. Among the readmissions, 48% were due to cardiac causes, where PPCM and related complications (24%) were the most common cardiac cause followed by heart failure (16%). The annual cost of stay for index admissions was $64.2 million (average cost for index admission was $16,892). The annual charges attributed to readmission within 30 days were ≈$9 million. Cardiac etiologies were the most common cause for 30-day readmissions in PPCM patients, with a readmission rate of 13%. Long-term anticoagulation use, multiparity, coronary disease and length of stay predicted higher 30-day readmission.

Clinical characteristics of patients from the worldwide registry on peripartum cardiomyopathy (PPCM): EURObservational Research Programme in conjunction with the Heart Failure Association of the European Society of Cardiology Study Group on PPCM.

AIMS: The purpose of this study is to describe disease presentation, co-morbidities, diagnosis and initial therapeutic management of patients with peripartum cardiomyopathy (PPCM) living in countries belonging to the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) vs. non-ESC countries. METHODS AND RESULTS: Out of 500 patients with PPCM entered by 31 March 2016, we report on data of the first 411 patients with completed case record forms (from 43 countries) entered into this ongoing registry. There were marked differences in socio-demographic parameters such as Human Development Index, GINI index on inequality, and Health Expenditure in PPCM patients from ESC vs. non-ESC countries (P < 0.001 each). Ethnicity was Caucasian (34%), Black African (25.8%), Asian (21.8%), and Middle Eastern backgrounds (16.4%). Despite the huge disparities in socio-demographic factors and ethnic backgrounds, baseline characteristics are remarkably similar. Drug therapy initiated post-partum included ACE inhibitors/ARBs and mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists with identical frequencies in ESC vs. non-ESC countries. However, in non-ESC countries, there was significantly less use of beta-blockers (70.3% vs. 91.9%) and ivabradine (1.4% vs. 17.1%), but more use of diuretics (91.3% vs. 68.8%), digoxin (37.0% vs. 18.0%), and bromocriptine (32.6% vs. 7.1%) (P < 0.001). More patients in non-ESC vs. ESC countries continued to have symptomatic heart failure after 1 month (92.3% vs. 81.3%, P < 0.001). Venous thrombo-embolic events, arterial embolizations, and cerebrovascular accidents were documented in 28 of 411 patients (6.8%). Neonatal death rate was 3.1%. CONCLUSION: PPCM occurs in women from different ethnic backgrounds globally. Despite marked differences in socio-economic background, mode of presentation was largely similar. Embolic events and persistent heart failure were common within 1 month post-diagnosis and required intensive, multidisciplinary management.

Issues and Challenges in Diagnostic Sequencing for Inherited Cardiac Conditions.

BACKGROUND: Inherited cardiac conditions are a relatively common group of Mendelian diseases associated with ill health and death, often in the young. Research into the genetic causes of these conditions has enabled confirmatory and predictive diagnostic sequencing to become an integral part of the clinical management of inherited cardiomyopathies, arrhythmias, aortopathies, and dyslipidemias. CONTENT: Currently, the principle benefit of clinical genetic testing is the cascade screening of family members of patients with a pathogenic variant, enabling targeted follow up of presymptomatic genotype-positive individuals and discharge of genotype-negative individuals to health. For the affected proband, diagnostic sequencing can also be useful in discriminating inherited disease from alternative diagnoses, directing treatment, and for molecular autopsy in cases of sudden unexplained death. Advances in sequencing technology have expanded testing panels for inherited cardiac conditions and driven down costs, further improving the cost-effectiveness of genetic testing. However, this expanded testing requires great rigor in the identification of pathogenic variants, with domain-specific knowledge required for variant interpretation. SUMMARY: Diagnostic sequencing has the potential to become an integral part of the clinical management of patients with inherited cardiac conditions. However, to move beyond just confirmatory and predictive testing, a much greater understanding is needed of the genetic basis of these conditions, the role of the environment, and the underlying disease mechanisms. With this additional information it is likely that genetic testing will increasingly be used for stratified and preventative strategies in the era of genomic medicine.

Epidemiology and cost of heart failure in children.

Heart failure in children is a complex disease process, which can occur secondary to a variety of aetiologies, including CHD, cardiomyopathy, or acquired conditions as well. Although the overall incidence of disease is low, the associated morbidity and mortality are high. Mortality may have decreased slightly over the last decade, and this is likely due to our ability to shepherd patients through longer periods of significant morbidity, with lasting effects. Costs of heart failure are significant - on the order of $1 billion annually as hospital charges for inpatient admissions alone. The value, or benefit to patient life and quality of life at this cost, is not well delineated. Further research is needed to optimise not only outcomes for these patients but also the high costs associated with them.

Economic Evaluation of the Use of Drug-Eluting Stents versus Bare-Metal Stents in Adults with Ischemic Cardiomyopathy Requiring Angioplasty.

BACKGROUND: The value of drug-eluting stents in preventing cardiovascular events has not been investigated in Mexico. OBJECTIVE: To conduct a cost-effectiveness analysis of early and new-generation drug-eluting stents from the perspective of a healthcare provider. METHODS: We conducted a cost-effectiveness analysis of early and new-generation drug-eluting stents in patients with ischemic cardiomyopathy attending a Cardiology Hospital of the Mexican Social Security Institute. The health endpoint used was major acute cardiovascular events prevented. The effectiveness by stent type was obtained from the literature. A retrospective chart review study was conducted to collect cost data on cardiovascular events including seven cost categories. Average and incremental cost-effectiveness ratios were estimated. Deterministic and probabilistic sensitivity analyses were performed to test the robustness of estimates. RESULTS: Incremental cost-effectiveness ratios in base-case were 28,910 and US$ 35,590 for early and new-generation stents, respectively. In an optimal scenario, incremental-cost effectiveness ratio was 24,776 and US$ 25,262 for early and new stents, respectively. Probabilistic sensitivity analysis suggested that 90% of cases were cost-effective when willingness-to-pay was 58,000 and US$ 66,000 for early and new-generation stents, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The cost-effectiveness ratios of early and new-generation stents were significantly higher than corresponding bare-metal stents.

Pediatric versus adult cardiomyopathy and heart failure-related hospitalizations: a value-based analysis.

BACKGROUND: Value-based health care is a proposed driver for reimbursement under the Affordable Care Act, with value broadly defined as outcomes divided by cost. Data on value-based health care in pediatric heart failure are scarce. METHODS AND RESULTS: A retrospective analysis of the Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project Kids' Inpatient Database and Nationwide Inpatient Sample was performed for pediatric and adult cardiomyopathy and heart failure-related hospitalizations. The study included 5,689 pediatric and 473,416 adult hospitalizations. Pediatric cardiomyopathy and heart failure hospitalizations were significantly longer than adult hospitalizations (mean ± SE 16.2 ± 0.7 days vs 6.8 ± 0.1 days; P < .001). Overall mortality was greater for pediatric hospitalizations (7.7% vs 5.6%; P < .001), although it decreased over time for both pediatric and adult hospitalizations. Charges were greater for pediatric hospitalizations, both overall ($116,483 ± $5,735 vs $40,662 ± $1,419; P < .001) and for all years evaluated. CONCLUSIONS: In a value-based model, pediatric cardiomyopathy and heart failure-related hospitalizations are associated with worse outcomes and greater charges than adult hospitalizations. More research is needed to understand the cost effectiveness of pediatric heart failure treatment and to reduce the burden on the health care system.

Targeted analysis of whole genome sequence data to diagnose genetic cardiomyopathy.

BACKGROUND: Cardiomyopathy is highly heritable but genetically diverse. At present, genetic testing for cardiomyopathy uses targeted sequencing to simultaneously assess the coding regions of >50 genes. New genes are routinely added to panels to improve the diagnostic yield. With the anticipated $1000 genome, it is expected that genetic testing will shift toward comprehensive genome sequencing accompanied by targeted gene analysis. Therefore, we assessed the reliability of whole genome sequencing and targeted analysis to identify cardiomyopathy variants in 11 subjects with cardiomyopathy. METHODS AND RESULTS: Whole genome sequencing with an average of 37× coverage was combined with targeted analysis focused on 204 genes linked to cardiomyopathy. Genetic variants were scored using multiple prediction algorithms combined with frequency data from public databases. This pipeline yielded 1 to 14 potentially pathogenic variants per individual. Variants were further analyzed using clinical criteria and segregation analysis, where available. Three of 3 previously identified primary mutations were detected by this analysis. In 6 subjects for whom the primary mutation was previously unknown, we identified mutations that segregated with disease, had clinical correlates, and had additional pathological correlation to provide evidence for causality. For 2 subjects with previously known primary mutations, we identified additional variants that may act as modifiers of disease severity. In total, we identified the likely pathological mutation in 9 of 11 (82%) subjects. CONCLUSIONS: These pilot data demonstrate that ≈30 to 40× coverage whole genome sequencing combined with targeted analysis is feasible and sensitive to identify rare variants in cardiomyopathy-associated genes.

Risk of sports: do we need a pre-participation screening for competitive and leisure athletes?

Sudden cardiac arrest is most often the first clinical manifestation of an underlying cardiovascular disease and usually occurs in previously asymptomatic athletes. The risk benefit ratio of physical exercise differs between young competitive athletes and middle-age/senior individuals engaged in leisure-time sports activity. Competitive sports are associated with an increase in the risk of sudden cardiovascular death (SCD) in susceptible adolescents and young adults with underlying cardiovascular disorders. In middle-age/older individuals, physical activity can be regarded as a 'two-edged sword': vigorous exertion increases the incidence of acute coronary events in those who did not exercise regularly, whereas habitual physical activity reduces the overall risk of myocardial infarction and SCD. Although cardiovascular pre-participation evaluation offers the potential to identify athletes with life-threatening cardiovascular abnormalities before onset of symptoms and may reduce their risk of SCD, there is a significant debate among cardiologists about efficacy, impact of false-positive results and cost-effectiveness of routine screening. This review presents an appraisal of the available data and criticisms concerning screening programmes aimed to prevent SCD of either young competitive athletes or older individuals engaged in leisure-time sports activity.

Prophylactic implantation of cardioverter defibrillators in idiopathic nonischemic cardiomyopathy for the primary prevention of death: a narrative review.

Implantable cardioverter defibrillator (ICD) therapy reduces sudden cardiac death rates and reduces mortality in patients with ischemic heart disease and low ejection fractions. One-third of the deaths in patients with nonischemic cardiomyopathy are sudden. However, the efficacy of ICDs in the primary prevention of death in these patients is less clear. The most common cause of mortality in patients treated with ICDs is heart failure progression. ICD shocks can cause direct myocardial injury, fibrosis, inflammation, and adverse psychological outcomes, and these changes may contribute to the ventricular dysfunction in patients who already have a significantly depressed ejection fraction. We have reviewed the published randomized controlled trials and meta-analysis of prophylactic ICD therapy in the primary prevention of death in patients with nonischemic cardiomyopathy. The individual randomized controlled trials do not report a statistically significant reduction of mortality unless the ICD treatment is added to cardiac resynchronization therapy, but the meta-analysis did show a significant mortality reduction and favored ICD therapy in these patients. Medical management of many study participants was suboptimal, at least based on current guidelines. The patients with non-ischemic cardiomyopathy have good outcomes with medical therapy, and ICD therapy in this relatively low-risk population needs better selection criteria.

Is African descent an independent risk factor of peripartum cardiomyopathy?

Risk factors for peripartum cardiomyopathy (PPCM) are controversial. PPCM seems to be more prevalent in women of African descent, the highest observed incidence is in Haiti (1 per 300 live births). Our retrospective study conducted in Martinique showed an incidence of 1 per 5500 live births. This incidence is significantly lower than in Haiti. Women from Martinique and Haiti do not differ for most classical risk factors: African descent, age, pregnancy-associated hypertension, multiple pregnancy and pre-eclampsia. However, the parity rate and the socioeconomic level are different. Thus, African descent could be confounded by high parity rate and socioeconomic status.

Impact of intraoperative myocardial tissue acidosis on postoperative adverse outcomes and cost of care for patients undergoing prolonged aortic clamping during cardiopulmonary bypass.

BACKGROUND: This study examined the impact of intraoperative myocardial acidosis and adverse postoperative outcomes on the cost of cardiac surgical care. METHODS: Myocardial tissue pH corrected to 37 degrees C (pH(37C)) was measured in 162 patients with cross-clamp (XC) duration of 119 minutes or longer. Perioperative data and outcomes were collected prospectively. The Veterans Affairs cost accounting system was used to determine the cost of care in a subset of 57 patients. RESULTS: Long XC duration was associated with significantly increased acidosis and adverse postoperative outcomes. The cost of care for patients with adverse outcomes was increased by 110% (P < .0001). Patients with acidosis at the end of reperfusion had significantly (P = .0470) increased costs of care. End reperfusion of myocardial tissue pH(37C) of less than 7.0, diabetes mellitus, and body surface area were significant determinants of postoperative adverse outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: Intraoperative myocardial acidosis is a determinant of postoperative adverse outcomes and cost in cardiac surgery. Reducing XC duration and improving intraoperative myocardial protection should improve outcomes and reduce cost.

Coronary artery calcium to predict all-cause mortality in elderly men and women.

OBJECTIVES: We sought to study the prognostic utility of coronary artery calcium (CAC) in the elderly. BACKGROUND: The prognostic significance of CAC in the elderly is not well known. METHODS: All-cause mortality was assessed in 35,388 patients (3,570 were >or=70 years old at screening, and 50% were women) after a mean follow-up of 5.8 +/- 3 years. RESULTS: In older patients, risk factors and CAC were more prevalent. Overall survival was 97.9% at the end of follow-up. Mortality increased with each age decile with a relative hazard of 1.09 (95% confidence interval: 1.08 to 1.10, p < 0.0001), and rates were greater for men than women (hazard ratio: 1.53; 95% confidence interval: 1.32 to 1.77, p < 0.0001). Increasing CAC scores were associated with decreasing survival across all age deciles (p < 0.0001). Survival for a <40-year and >or=80-year-old man with a CAC score >or=400 was 88% and 19% (95% and 44% for a woman, p < 0.0001), respectively. Among the 20,562 patients with no CAC, annual mortality rates ranged from 0.3% to 2.2% for patients age 40 to 49 years or >or=70 years (p < 0.0001). The use of CAC allowed us to reclassify more than 40% of the patients >or=70 years old more often by excluding risk (i.e., CAC <400) in those with >3 risk factors. CONCLUSIONS: Despite their limited life expectancy, the use of CAC discriminates mortality risk in the elderly. Furthermore, the use of CAC allows physicians to reclassify risk in the elderly.

Health and economic consequences of sevelamer use for hyperphosphatemia in patients on hemodialysis.

OBJECTIVES: The safety and efficacy of sevelamer hydrochloride in binding phosphate in patients with end-stage renal disease and its ability to attenuate the progression of cardiac calcification have been well documented but not the longer-term health and economic implications. Thus, a model of the predicted long-term consequences of sevelamer compared with calcium-based binders (acetate and carbonate) was developed. METHODS: Long-term cardiovascular implications of 1 year of treatment with phosphate binders in patients on hemodialysis are estimated based on the patient's demographics, comorbidities, and physiologic and renal parameters. The initial calcification score and expected changes over 1 year are derived using regression equations developed from the Treat-to-Goal study and translated to cardiovascular disease risk based on equations developed from a long-term cohort study. In this article, the implications of cardiovascular disease for life expectancy and medical costs are accounted for from a US payer perspective. RESULTS: The cardioprotective effect of sevelamer over 1 year is estimated to result in a 12% reduction in cardiovascular events compared with calcium acetate. In a population of 100 patients, the savings of 205,600 dollars accrued due to avoiding nine cardiovascular events with sevelamer, largely offset the increased binder costs, leading to a favorable cost-effectiveness ratio of about 2200 dollars per (discounted) life-year gained. CONCLUSIONS: Although both binders provide equivalent phosphate binding capacity, the results indicate that the advantage of 1 year of treatment with sevelamer in attenuating the progression of calcification has important clinical and economic consequences, suggesting that this provides good value for money.

A cost comparison of heart transplantation versus alternative operations for cardiomyopathy.

BACKGROUND: Heart transplantation is an established therapy for cardiomyopathy but is limited by organ shortage and expense. As a result, alternative operations have been proposed including coronary bypass, mitral valve repair, and left ventricular reconstruction. Because it is unknown whether alternative operations are less expensive than replacing the diseased heart, we compared in-hospital costs and early outcome of these operations with elective heart transplantation. METHODS: We compared clinical and financial data of 268 patients with ejection fraction less than 30% who underwent elective heart transplantation (n = 52, UNOS status 2 only), coronary bypass (n = 176), mitral repair (n = 15), or left ventricular reconstruction (n = 25). Data were evaluated for between-group differences, with p less than 0.05 as significant. RESULTS: Preoperative ejection fraction, although similar for heart transplantation (21.2% +/- 1.3%), coronary bypass (25.8% +/- 0.4%), mitral repair (22.9% +/- 1.5%), and left ventricular reconstruction (24.2% +/- 2.1%), was significantly different between the former two (p < 0.001). There was no difference in operative mortality: 5.8% (3 of 52), 3.4% (7 of 176), 6.7% (1 of 15), and 4.0% (1 of 25), respectively (p = 0.8). However, total hospital cost of heart transplantation was significantly greater than all others: $75,992 +/- $5,380, $25,008 +/- $1,446, $32,375 +/- $2,379, and $26,584 +/- $4,076, respectively (p < 0.001). Organ procurement expenses alone comprised 39.7% ($30,169) of total transplant cost. Kaplan-Meier survival analysis failed to show any survival difference between the various groups (p = 0.86) CONCLUSIONS: Compared with heart transplantation, alternative operations yield a comparable early outcome and long-term survival, and are markedly less expensive. The cost of transplantation, which is largely due to procurement expenses, is yet another reason to attempt alternative operations for cardiomyopathy whenever feasible.