Haemogram and Serum Biochemical Values of Four Indigenous Species of Monkeys in South West Nigeria.

Haematological and serum biochemical values are useful guides and biomarkers in health and diseases for reaching a diagnosis, estimating disease prognosis and monitoring treatment progress, in mammals. Reference ranges for some parameters differ among species of mammals and between sexes within a species. There is dearth of information on standard reference value for blood parameters for Nigerian indigenous monkeys. Whole blood and serum samples obtained from 50 apparently healthy adult monkeys in both captivity and from the wild in southwest Nigeria were subjected to haematology and serum biochemistry to obtain preliminary reference values for haematological and serum biochemical analytes for Cercocebus sebaeus (Green monkey), Cercopithecus mona (Mona monkey), Erythrocebus patas (Patas monkey) and Papio anubis (Anubis baboon). Numerical data were summarized as mean and standard deviation and subjected to statistical analysis; Student t test and analysis of variance, to compare values of blood parameters obtained between species and gender. A p-value less than 0.05 was considered significant. The hematocrit of male animals were significantly higher than that of females (P=0.01) in all the 4 species studied but there was no significant difference in other blood parameters such as total white blood cell and the differential counts, platelet count, serum aspartate transferase, alanine transferase, alkaline phosphatase, total plasma protein, albumin, and globulin concentrations between the sexes. Generally, there was no significant difference between total white blood cell and the differential counts, hematocrit, red cell count, haemoglobin concentration, platelet count, serum aspartate transferase, alanine transferase, alkaline phosphatase, total plasma protein, albumin, and globulin concentrations among the monkey species.

Enzootic Circulation of Chikungunya Virus in East Africa: Serological Evidence in Non-human Kenyan Primates.

Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) is a globally emerging pathogen causing debilitating arthralgia and fever in humans. First identified in Tanzania (1953), this mosquito-borne alphavirus received little further attention until a 2004 re-emergence in Kenya from an unknown source. This outbreak subsequently spread to the Indian Ocean, with adaptation for transmission by a new urban vector. Under the hypothesis that sylvatic progenitor cycles of CHIKV exist in Kenya (as reported in West Africa, between non-human primates (NHPs) and arboreal Aedes spp. mosquitoes), we pursued evidence of enzootic transmission and human spillover events. We initially screened 252 archived NHP sera from Kenya using plaque reduction neutralization tests. Given an overall CHIKV seroprevalence of 13.1% (marginally higher in western Kenya), we sought more recent NHP samples during 2014 from sites in Kakamega County, sampling wild blue monkeys, olive baboons, and red-tailed monkeys (N = 33). We also sampled 34 yellow baboons near Kwale, coastal Kenya. Overall, CHIKV seropositivity in 2014 was 13.4% (9/67). Antibodies reactive against closely related o'nyong-nyong virus (ONNV) occurred; however, neutralization titers were too low to conclude ONNV exposure. Seroprevalence for the flavivirus dengue was also detected (28%), mostly near Kwale, suggesting possible spillback from humans to baboons. CHIKV antibodies in some juvenile and subadult NHPs suggested recent circulation. We conclude that CHIKV is circulating in western Kenya, despite the 2004 human outbreaks only being reported coastally. Further work to understand the enzootic ecology of CHIKV in east Africa is needed to identify sites of human spillover contact where urban transmission may be initiated.

Clinical biochemistry and hematology of the elusive sun-tailed monkey (Cercopithecus solatus) in Gabon: inaugural data from the only semifree ranging colony in the world.

Clinical blood biochemistry and hematology are valuable tools to evaluate health and welfare in many animal species. In order to document the general biology of one of the most poorly known nonhuman primate species, and contribute to its conservation, the clinical blood biochemistry and hematology of the sun-tailed monkey (Cercopithecus solatus Harrisson) was investigated in its range of endemicity in Gabon. Data derived from 26 years of clinical monitoring of the only semicaptive colony of this species in the world, housed at CIRMF (Franceville, Gabon), were analyzed in order to establish reference values of age-sex classes. Consistent with previous reports in other primate species, age and sex significantly affected a number of biochemical and hematological parameters in C. solatus. Hematological analyses demonstrated significant differences in red blood cells, hemoglobin (HB), and hematocrit (HT), with males showing significantly greater values than females. In contrast, neutrophil counts were greater in females. An ontogenetic effect was detected for HB, HT, eosinophil, and monocyte counts, while lymphocytes significantly decreased with age. Biochemical analyses also showed significant differences, with females displaying greater cholesterol and alanine aminotransferase levels. Increase in levels of blood urea and aspartate aminotransferase coupled with decrease in albumin in old individuals suggested declining kidney, liver, and muscle functions with age. Interspecific comparisons were conducted and the effects of the unique semifree-ranging setting on the validity and value of the results presented are discussed. The reference values established will be useful in further ecological, parasitological, and virological studies of the sun-tailed monkey.

[Absence of plasmodial infection among wild monkeys in Northern Senegal?]. / Absence d'infection plasmodiale chez les singes sauvages du Nord-Sénégal?

Eighty-two wild monkeys belonging to the two species Chlorocebus aethiops and Erythrocebus patas were collected in the northern part of Senegal, West Africa. Thick blood smears were performed and Giemsa stained. Slides were microscopically examined with a sensitivity of the method estimated at 2 parasites per mm3 of blood. No blood parasites were observed. This negative result is in line with previous studies which never showed evidences of malaria parasites in monkeys from African savannahs. This intriguing absence is underlined.

Seasonal variation of serum lipids in the vervet monkey.

Seasonal variation of serum lipids has been observed in man, primates and other species. We are presenting data on serum lipid variation in Vervet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops). The monkeys (54 males, 33 females) were fed control diets (commercial pellets, fruit, vegetables) and data were pooled and grouped by season. Data having been obtained in South Africa, the seasons were: summer (December, January, February); fall (March, April, May); winter (June, July, August); and spring (September, October, November). Data presented are based on multiple samplings. Total serum cholesterol (mg/dl) and beta-lipoprotein cholesterol (mg/dl) varied significantly with season, peak values being observed in the fall months. Triglyceride and alpha-lipoprotein cholesterol levels showed seasonal variation which was not statistically significant. However, when data were analyzed by weight group (less than 3.3 kg; 3.3-4.3 kg; 4.4-5.3 kg; greater than 5.4 kg) only triglyceride and alpha-lipoprotein levels varied significantly with season. Significant interactions between diet, sex, weight, and season have also been observed. These observations can be used in planning future studies.

Vervet monkey (Cercopithecus aethiops sabaeus) whole blood serotonin level is determined by platelet uptake sites.

Whole blood serotonin levels in adult male vervet monkeys living in social groups are sensitive to the animals' social environment. The mechanisms that translate different behavioral and environmental cues into altered whole blood serotonin levels are unknown. In this study, we have measured platelet number, size, serotonin content, and serotonin uptake, as well as the serum concentrations of tryptophan, Mg+2 and Ca+2. Results showed that whole blood serotonin levels, platelet serotonin content, and the serotonin uptake parameter Vmax were stable within animals on repeated sampling. The whole blood serotonin level was highly positively associated with platelet serotonin content, and the platelet serotonin content was highly positively associated with Vmax. These findings suggested that whole blood serotonin levels were a function of the number of platelet uptake sites.

A species comparison of low density lipoprotein heterogeneity in nonhuman primates fed atherogenic diets.

Six male cynomolgus monkeys and five male African green monkeys were fed dietary cholesterol to induce hypercholesterolemia. The two groups studied had equivalent total plasma cholesterol concentrations. Low density lipoproteins (LDL) were isolated from whole plasma by ultracentrifugation and separated from other lipoprotein classes by agarose column chromatography. LDL were further subfractionated by density gradient ultracentrifugation in a VTi-50 vertical rotor. The material within five density regions was pooled from each sample and molecular weight, electrophoretic mobility, apoprotein heterogeneity, and percentage composition were determined for each subfraction. In general, cynomolgus monkey LDL were larger and more polydisperse than African green monkey LDL, and the LDL subfractions of cynomolgus monkeys were generally of lower densities although molecular weights at any density were in the same range for both species. ApoB-100 was the major apoprotein in each subfraction. ApoE was frequently present in the less dense subfractions while apoA-I was often seen in the more dense subfractions. Cynomolgus monkey LDL appeared to contain more apoE than African green monkey LDL. Over the entire spectrum of LDL, the percentage composition of the particles at any given density was indistinguishable between the species. In general, the average cynomolgus monkey LDL was larger, more polydisperse, less dense, and appeared to contain more apoE than the average African green monkey LDL. One or all of these differences might help explain the increased susceptibility to diet-induced atherosclerosis seen in cynomolgus monkeys.

Phenylacetic acid production in dominant and non-dominant vervet monkeys.

Free and conjugated plasma phenylacetic acid concentrations were significantly higher in dominant male vervet monkeys than in non-dominant males living in stable social groups. These findings may be connected with an earlier observation that plasma from aggressive human psychopaths contains higher concentrations of phenylacetic acid than non-aggressive controls; whether they reflect an increased production of phenylethylamine is still unknown.

Effects of ketamine anaesthesia, stress and repeated bleeding on the haematology of vervet monkeys.

Haematology values are presented for the vervet monkey (Cercopithecus aethiops), and the relative effects of high dose ketamine anaesthesia, stress of capture and repeated bleedings assessed. Anaesthesia resulted in decreased WBC and RBC values, attributed to depression of cardiovascular function. These effects were the reverse of those of alarm and strenuous exercise (leukocytosis and polycythaemia) during capture. Stress resulted in relatively high white and low red blood cell counts. Opposing effects of stress and anaesthesia led to comparable haematological values for trained, non-anaesthetized vervets and stressed, anaesthetized vervets. Effects of repeated bleedings were opposite in anaesthetized and non-anaesthetized animals. These effects, however, along with those of ketamine anaesthesia and stress, were relatively insignificant compared with the wide variation in haematological values found among individuals. The biological importance of these effects thus appeared to be slight. The concept of 'normal values' is discussed.

Atherogenic diet-induced modification of the subfraction distribution of high density lipoproteins in monkeys.

High density lipoproteins (HDL) were isolated from the plasma of adult male African green monkeys fed control or atherogenic diets and were then subfractionated in a density gradient by centrifugation at 50,000 rpm, 20 degrees C for 18 hours in the Beckman VTi50 vertical rotor. Material from the gradient was pooled into six subfractions for further analysis. With increasing density across the gradient, the subfractions had progressively decreasing flotation rates, molecular weights, apo A-I/apo A-II mass ratios, lipid percentages of mass, and average sizes. Apoprotein content per particle was reasonably constant compared to lipid content. The physical and chemical properties of the HDL subfractions suggested that the gradient separated three subclasses of HDL equivalent to HDL 2b, HDL 2a, and HDL3 of human beings. When values among animals were compared, the atherogenic diet shifted the relationship between total plasma cholesterol concentration and total HDL concentration from a positive to a negative correlation. The subfractions most affected were those of d less than 1.10 g/ml (HDL2b), while the 1.10 less than d less than 1.13 g/ml (HDL2a) subfractions were affected to a lesser degree; the more responsive the animal to dietary cholesterol, the lower was the mass concentrations of these subfractions. This pattern suggested that diet-induced changes in HDL2 subfraction particle concentrations may be related to the development of atherosclerosis in African green monkeys; parallel changes in particle composition were not identified.

Lipids, lipoproteins, and endocrine profiles during pregnancy in the African green monkey (Cercopithecus aethiops).

In an attempt to establish relationships between the endocrine and lipid metabolism during pregnancy, the changes in total plasma cholesterol (TPC) and lipoprotein cholesterol that occur during pregnancy in the African green monkey were investigated longitudinally in ten females in relation to the changes in progesterone, estradiol, and fasting insulin concentrations. Respective means for TPC, high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) plus very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) cholesterol were 343 +/- 35, 108 +/- 9, and 235 +/- 36 mg/dL prior to the estimated date of conception in ten females fed a high-fat, high-cholesterol diet. The concentration of these lipids fell to 225 +/- 31, 54 +/- 4, and 168 +/- 29 mg/dL for TPC (P less than 0.001), HDL cholesterol (P less than 0.001), and LDL + VLDL cholesterol (P less than 0.001), respectively, by midpregnancy (84 days). Progesterone concentrations increased during the first 60 days of pregnancy and were negatively correlated with HDL cholesterol concentrations (r = -0.57, P less than 0.02). After reaching their highest mean value, progesterone concentrations then plateaued at lower concentrations until parturition. The decrease in progesterone concentrations was associated with an initial rise in estradiol concentrations, which reached their highest concentrations in late pregnancy and were inversely correlated with HDL-cholesterol concentrations (r = -.32, P less than 0.01). Although glucose concentrations remained steady during gestation, insulin concentrations were elevated compared to postpartum concentrations (P less than 0.05) suggesting that insulin resistance occurred during the pregnancy in this nonhuman primate.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Social and environmental influences on blood serotonin concentrations in monkeys.

Dominant male adult vervet monkeys have whole-blood serotonin concentrations approximately twice those of subordinate adult males. We examined the effects of spontaneous and induced changes in social status, temporary isolation from the social group, and membership in single male groups on whole-blood serotonin concentrations. We found that in male vervet monkeys, elevated blood serotonin concentration is a state-dependent consequence of active occupation of the dominant male social position, and we believe that a reinterpretation of the significance of hyperserotonemia in humans may be warranted.

Measurement of apolipoprotein A-I concentration in nonhuman primate serum by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).

A sensitive and specific enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for nonhuman primate serum apolipoprotein A-I (apoA-I) is described. The assay is a noncompetitive, sandwich ELISA in which polystyrene microtiter plates were used with purified, monospecific goat anti-monkey apoA-I antibodies adsorbed on the wells. The serum samples were added to the coated wells, incubated, and after washing, antibodies conjugated to horseradish peroxidase were added. After further washing, the bound label was assayed. A heat treatment step, 52 degrees C for 3 hr, was used to maximize the apoA-I immunoreactive sites in diluted serum. Serum samples extracted with chloroform-methanol, delipidated with tetramethylurea, or denatured by heating gave essentially equivalent results. The working range of the apoA-I standards was 0.5 to 5 ng and parallel responses were observed for apoA-I in serum, in isolated HDL, and in buffer as a purified apoprotein. Recovery of apoA-I added to serum was quantitative (106 +/- 3%). The intra- and interassay coefficients of variation were 6.2 and 6.9%, respectively. The enzyme immunoassay yielded values that compared favorably with those obtained by radial immunodiffusion (r = 0.84). ApoA-I concentration in African green monkey serum was highly correlated with the HDL cholesterol concentration (r = 0.86). It is concluded that this ELISA is an accurate and precise method for determination of apoA-I concentrations in primate serum.

Plasma cortisol response to feeding in African green vervets.

The timing of a single daily meal of monkey chow in African green vervets exerts a synchronizing influence on plasma cortisol concentrations with an initial increase after feeding followed by a decrease to minimal levels five hours after feeding.

Serum aminopeptidases in pregnant vervet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops).

Two distinctive aminopeptidase isozymes have been identified in the serum of the vervet monkey. The L-methionine-sensitive cytosol aminopeptidase (AP; E.C. 3.4.11.1) is present in all samples, while the cystyl aminopeptidase (CAP; E.C. 3.4.11.3) isozyme, which is resistant to inhibition by 0.1 M L-methionine, is found only in the serum of pregnant females. The pregnancy-specific CAP isozyme appears in the serum between the fifth and the eleventh weeks of a nearly 22-week pregnancy. The overall aminopeptidase activity and the activity of the L-methionine-insensitive isozymes alone are both significantly greater in the serum of pregnant females than in nonpregnant females. Consequently, the presence of the cystyl aminopeptidase isozyme in the serum is a useful diagnostic indicator of pregnancy in the vervet monkey.

[Cell kinetics and chromosome radiosensitivity of lymphocytes from 4 Cercopithecus species]. / Cinétique cellulaire et radiosensibilité chromosomique des lymphocytes de quatre espèces de cercopithèques.

The harlequin-staining technique has been used to study the cell kinetics and the radiosensitivity of PHA-stimulated lymphocytes from Cercopithecus nictitans. C. aethiops var. cynosorus, C. irus, and C. ascanius. At 48 hours, the fixation time normally used for human lymphocytes, a large heterogeneity appears between the four species, with respect to the incidence of cells in first, second or third mitoses. If analysis of lymphocytes is restricted to Ml dividing cells, the yield of radiation-induced chromosome aberrations does not differ significantly from the incidence observed in irradiated human lymphocytes.

Blood protein variation in a population of Ethiopian vervet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops aethiops).

Seven small groups of vervet monkeys (Cercopithecus aethiops aethiops), totaling 124 individuals, from Awash National Park, Ethiopia, were trapped and blood samples were obtained. Twenty-three loci were examined by starch gel electrophoresis and four loci, Tf, E, ADA, and PMG2 were found to be polymorphic. The average heterozygosity (H) of the population was calculated to be 5.6%. No significant deviations from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium proportions occurred and a chi-square test for group homogeneity was also not significant. Average Fst for all polymorphic loci was calculated to be 0.062. This suggests that the entire group functions as a single Mendelian population.

[Isolation of adeno-associated virus type 4 from a culture of green monkey kidney cells]. / Vydelenie adenoassotsiirovannogo virusa tipa 4 iz kul'tury kletok pochek zelenykh martyshek.

In the process of biological control of uninfected green monkey kidney (GMK) cell cultures a thermostable hemagglutinating agent designated No. 5056 was isolated alongside with adenovirus-SV. By its antigenic properties the 5056 strain was identified as adeno-associated virus type 4 (AAV-4). In control of 574 specimens of GMK culture batches, 40 AAV-4 strains were isolated in the presence of a helper adenovirus. Some biological properties of the isolates and their resistance to certain physical and chemical treatments were studied. Two isolates of the satellite virus were examined in the electron microscope. A correlation between the rate of AAV-4 isolation from GMK cultures and the presence of complement-fixing antibody to AAV-4 in monkey sera was observed.

Influence of dietary fats and an oral contraceptive on plasma lipids, high density lipoproteins, gallstones, and atherosclerosis in african green monkeys.

Twenty-nine African green monkeys were fed diets for 22 months containing 0.79 mg cholesterol/kcal and 40% of calories as either safflower oil or butter with or without the addition of an estrogen- and progestin-containing oral contraceptive. Plasma cholesterol concentrations ranged from 199 to 250 mg/dl. Animals consuming the safflower oil diet had plasma cholesterol concentrations that averaged 61 mg/dl lower than those consuming butter. At least 72% of this lowering was due to a reduction in low density lipoproteins. Triglyceride concentrations were also slightly lower in animals consuming the safflower oil diet. The oral contraceptive lowered total plasma cholesterol concentrations in both diet groups by an average of 41 mg/dl with 54% of this lowering (22 mg/dl) due to a reduction in high density lipoprotein cholesterol. This effect occurred only during the 3 weeks while the contraceptive was being administered and was not apparent 1 week after stopping the drug. Animals consuming safflower oil had bile that was more lithogenic and had more gallstones than did those consuming butter. Addition of the oral contraceptive caused a slight increase in bile lithogenicity, but this increase was not statistically significant. There was no significant interaction between the oral contraceptive and either of the diets to exacerbate cholelithiasis. At the plasma cholesterol concentrations achieved only minimal amounts of atherosclerosis developed and there were no indications of differences due to diet or oral contraceptive in the extent of atherosclerosis.