EFFECT OF MIR-21-3P ON INTESTINAL INJURY IN RATS WITH TRAUMATIC HEMORRHAGIC SHOCK RESUSCITATED WITH THE SODIUM BICARBONATE RINGER'S SOLUTION.

ABSTRACT: Background : This study aims to determine the impact and mechanism of miR-21-3p on intestinal injury and intestinal glycocalyx during fluid resuscitation in traumatic hemorrhagic shock (THS), and the different impacts of sodium lactate Ringer's solution (LRS) and sodium bicarbonate Ringer's solution (BRS) for resuscitation on intestinal damage. Methods : A rat model of THS was induced by hemorrhage from the left femur fracture. The pathological changes of intestinal tissues and glycocalyx structure were observed by hematoxylin-eosin staining and transmission electron microscope. MiR-21-3p expression in intestinal tissues was detected by real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction. The expression of glycocalyx-, cell junction-, and PI3K/Akt/NF-κB signaling pathway-related proteins was analyzed by western blot. Results : MiR-21-3p expression was increased in THS rats, which was suppressed by resuscitation with BRS. BRS or LRS aggravated the intestinal injury and damaged intestinal glycocalyx in THS rats. The expression of SDC-1, HPA, ß-catenin, MMP2, and MMP9 was upregulated, the expression of E-cad was downregulated, and the PI3K/Akt/NF-κB signaling pathway was activated in THS rats, which were further aggravated by BRS or LRS. The adverse effect of LRS was more serious than BRS. MiR-21-3p overexpression deteriorated the injury of intestinal tissues and intestinal glycocalyx; increased the expression of SDC-1, HPA, ß-catenin, MMP2, and MMP9 while decreasing E-cad expression; and activated the PI3K/Akt/NF-κB signaling pathway in BRS-resuscitated THS rats. Conclusion : MiR-21-3p aggravated intestinal tissue injury and intestinal glycocalyx damage through activating PI3K/Akt/NF-κB signaling pathway in rats with THS resuscitated with BRS.

Hirudin ameliorates myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury in a rat model of hemorrhagic shock and resuscitation: roles of NLRP3-signaling pathway.

Severe hemorrhage shock and resuscitation (HSR) has been reported to induce myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury (MIRI), resulting in a poor prognosis. Hirudin, an effective thrombin inhibitor, can offer protection against MIRI. This study aimed to determine if hirudin administration ameliorates HSR-induced MIRI and the underlying mechanism. A rat model of HSR was established by bleeding rats to a mean arterial blood pressure of 30-35 mmHg for 45 min and then resuscitating them with all the shed blood through the left femoral vein. After HSR, 1 mg/kg of hirudin was administrated immediately. At 24 h after HSR, the cardiac injury was assessed using serum CK-MB, cTnT, hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining, echocardiography, M1-polarized macrophages, and pyroptosis-associated factors, including cleaved caspase-1, Gasdermin D (GSDMD) N-terminal, IL-1ß, and IL-18 were measured by immunofluorescence and western blot assays. Nigericin, a unique agonist, was utilized to evaluate the responsibilities of NLRP3 signaling. Under the HSR condition, rats exhibited a significant increase in myocardial injury score, an elevation of serum cTnT, CK-MB levels, an aggrandization of M1-polarized macrophages, an upregulation of pyroptosis-associated factors, including cleaved caspase-1, GSDMD N-terminal, IL-1ß, and IL-18, but a significant decrease in left ventricular ejection fraction (EF%) and a reduction of left ventricular fractional shortening (FS%), while hirudin administration partially restored the changes. However, the NLRP3 agonist nigericin reversed the cardioprotective effects of hirudin. We determined the cardioprotective effects of hirudin against HSR-induced MIRI. The mechanism may involve the inhibition of NLRP3-induced pyroptosis.

Effect of sodium bicarbonate Ringer's solution on lung injury in rats with traumatic hemorrhagic shock.

This study aimed to explore the impact of different pH values of resuscitation fluid on traumatic hemorrhagic shock (THS), focusing on their effects on glycocalyx and inflammation. A rat model of THS was induced by hemorrhage from a left femur fracture, while an oxygen-glucose deprivation/reoxygenation (OGD/R)-induced HULEC-5a cell model was considered as an in vitro THS model. The lung tissue pathology and glycocalyx structure were assessed through hematoxylin-eosin (H&E) staining and transmission electron microscope examination. The levels of glycocalyx-related factors and inflammation-related factors were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The expression of glycocalyx-related proteins, cell junction-related proteins, and proteins involved in the PI3K/Akt/NF-κB signaling pathway was analyzed by western blot. The results showed that both sodium bicarbonate Ringer's solution (BRS) and lactate Ringer's solution (LRS) were effective in restoring mean arterial pressure and heart rate in THS rats. However, LRS has a stronger impact on promoting inflammation and damaging the glycocalyx compared with BRS. In OGD/R-induced HULEC-5a cells, a pH of 7.4 and 6.5 increased inflammation and disrupted the glycocalyx, while a pH of 8.1 had no significant effect on inflammation or glycocalyx. Furthermore, the PI3K/Akt/NF-κB signaling pathway was activated by fluid resuscitation and different pH values. However, the activating effect of BRS and pH 8.1 on the PI3K/Akt/NF-κB signaling pathway was milder compared with LRS and pH6.5. In conclusion, an alkaline recovery environment was more beneficial for the treatment of THS.

Neutrophil extracellular traps promote intestinal barrier dysfunction by regulating macrophage polarization during trauma/hemorrhagic shock via the TGF-ß signaling pathway.

The mechanism by which neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) may cause intestinal barrier dysfunction in response to trauma/hemorrhagic shock (T/HS) remains unclear. In this study, the roles and mechanisms of NETs in macrophage polarization were examined to determine whether this process plays a role in tissue damage associated with T/HS. Rat models of T/HS and macrophage polarization were developed and the levels of NETs formation in the intestinal tissue of T/HS rats were assessed. NET formation was inhibited in models of T/HS to examine the effect on intestinal inflammation and barrier injury. The proportions of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory macrophages in the damaged intestinal tissues were measured. Finally, high-throughput sequencing was performed to investigate the underlying mechanisms involved in this process. The study revealed that the level of NETs formation was increased and that inhibition of NETs formation alleviated the intestinal inflammation and barrier injury. Moreover, the number of pro-inflammatory macrophages increased and the number of anti-inflammatory macrophages decreased. RNA sequencing analysis indicated that NETs formation decreased the expression of transforming growth factor-beta receptor 2 (TGFBR2), bioinformatic analyses revealed that TGFBR2 was significantly enriched in the transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-ß) signaling pathway. Verification experiments showed that NETs impeded macrophage differentiation into the anti-inflammatory/M2 phenotype and inhibited TGFBR2 and TGF-ß expression in macrophages. However, treatment with DNase I and overexpression of TGFBR2, and inhibition of TGF-ß promoted and prevented this process, respectively. NETs may regulate the macrophage polarization process by promoting intestinal barrier dysfunction in T/HS rats through the TGFBR2-mediated TGF-ß signaling pathway.

STELLATE GANGLION BLOCK REVERSES PHSML-INDUCED VASCULAR HYPOREACTIVITY THROUGH INHIBITING AUTOPHAGY-MEDIATED PHENOTYPIC TRANSFORMATION OF VSMCs.

ABSTRACT: Posthemorrhagic shock mesenteric lymph (PHSML) return-contributed excessive autophagy of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) is involved in vascular hyporeactivity, which is inhibited by stellate ganglion block (SGB) treatment. The contractile phenotype of VSMCs transforms into a synthetic phenotype after stimulation with excessive autophagy. Therefore, we hypothesized that SGB ameliorates PHSML-induced vascular hyporeactivity by inhibiting autophagy-mediated phenotypic transformation of VSMCs. To substantiate this hypothesis, a hemorrhagic shock model in conscious rats was used to observe the effects of SGB intervention or intravenous infusion of the autophagy inhibitor 3-methyladenine (3-MA) on intestinal blood flow and the expression of autophagy- and phenotype-defining proteins in mesenteric secondary artery tissues. We also investigated the effects of intraperitoneal administration of PHSML intravenous infusion and the autophagy agonist rapamycin (RAPA) on the beneficial effect of SGB. The results showed that hemorrhagic shock decreased intestinal blood flow and enhanced the expression of LC3 II/I, Beclin 1, and matrix metalloproteinase 2, which were reversed by SGB or 3-MA treatment. In contrast, RAPA and PHSML administration abolished the beneficial effects of SGB. Furthermore, the effects of PHSML or PHSML obtained from rats treated with SGB (PHSML-SGB) on cellular contractility, autophagy, and VSMC phenotype were explored. Meanwhile, the effects of 3-MA on PHSML and RAPA on PHSML-SGB were observed. The results showed that PHSML, but not PHSML-SGB, incubation decreased VSMC contractility and induced autophagy activation and phenotype transformation. Importantly, 3-MA administration reversed the adverse effects of PHSML, and RAPA treatment attenuated the effects of PHSML-SGB incubation on VSMCs. Taken together, the protective effect of SGB on vascular reactivity is achieved by inhibiting excessive autophagy-mediated phenotypic transformation of VSMCs to maintain their contractile phenotype.

ENDOCANNABINOID SYSTEM IN THE PARAVENTRICULAR NUCLEUS OF THE HYPOTHALAMUS MODULATES AUTONOMIC AND CARDIOVASCULAR CHANGES BUT NOT VASOPRESSIN RESPONSE IN A RAT HEMORRHAGIC SHOCK MODEL.

ABSTRACT: We evaluated the participation of the endocannabinoid system in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVN) on the cardiovascular, autonomic, and plasma vasopressin (AVP) responses evoked by hemorrhagic shock in rats. For this, the PVN was bilaterally treated with either vehicle, the selective cannabinoid receptor type 1 antagonist AM251, the selective fatty acid amide hydrolase amide enzyme inhibitor URB597, the selective monoacylglycerol-lipase enzyme inhibitor JZL184, or the selective transient receptor potential vanilloid type 1 antagonist capsazepine. We evaluated changes on arterial pressure, heart rate, tail skin temperature (ST), and plasma AVP responses induced by bleeding, which started 10 min after PVN treatment. We observed that bilateral microinjection of AM251 into the PVN reduced the hypotension during the hemorrhage and prevented the return of blood pressure to baseline values in the posthemorrhagic period. Inhibition of local 2-arachidonoylglycerol metabolism by PVN treatment with JZL184 induced similar effects in relation to those observed in AM251-treated animals. Inhibition of local anandamide metabolism via PVN treatment with URB597 decreased the depressor effect and ST drop induced by the hemorrhagic stimulus. Bilateral microinjection of capsazepine mitigated the fall in blood pressure and ST. None of the PVN treatments altered the increased plasma concentration of AVP and tachycardia induced by hemorrhage. Taken together, present results suggest that endocannabinoid neurotransmission within the PVN plays a prominent role in cardiovascular and autonomic, but not neuroendocrine, responses evoked by hemorrhage.

GRP78 improves the therapeutic effect of mesenchymal stem cells on hemorrhagic shock-induced liver injury: Involvement of the NF-кB and HO-1/Nrf-2 pathways.

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are a popular cell source for repairing the liver. Improving the survival rate and colonization time of MSCs may significantly improve the therapeutic outcomes of MSCs. Studies showed that 78-kDa glucose-regulated protein (GRP78) expression improves cell viability and migration. This study aims to examine whether GRP78 overexpression improves the efficacy of rat bone marrow-derived MSCs (rBMSCs) in HS-induced liver damage. Bone marrow was isolated from the femurs and tibias of rats. rBMSCs were transfected with a GFP-labeled GRP78 expression vector. Flow cytometry, transwell invasion assay, scratch assay immunoblotting, TUNEL assay, MTT assay, and ELISA were carried out. The results showed that GRP78 overexpression enhanced the migration and invasion of rBMSCs. Moreover, GRP78-overexpressing rBMSCs relieved liver damage, repressed liver oxidative stress, and inhibited apoptosis. We found that overexpression of GRP78 in rBMSCs inhibited activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome, significantly decreased the levels of inflammatory factors, and decreased the expression of CD68. Notably, GRP78 overexpression activated the Nrf-2/HO-1 pathway and inhibited the NF-κB pathway. High expression of GRP78 efficiently enhanced the effect of rBMSC therapy. GRP78 may be a potential target to improve the therapeutic efficacy of BMSCs.

Anemia Recovery After Lung Contusion, Hemorrhagic Shock, and Chronic Stress Is Gender-Specific in a Rat Model.

Background: Severe trauma and hemorrhagic shock lead to persistent anemia. Although biologic gender is known to modulate inflammatory responses after critical illness, the impact of gender on anemia recovery after injury remains unknown. The aim of this study was to identify gender-specific differences in anemia recovery after critical illness. Materials and Methods: Male and proestrus female Sprague-Dawley rats (n = 8-9 per group) were subjected to lung contusion and hemorrhagic shock (LCHS) or LCHS with daily chronic stress (LCHS/CS) compared with naïve. Hematologic data, bone marrow progenitor growth, and bone marrow and liver gene transcription were analyzed on day seven. Significance was defined as p < 0.05. Results: Males lost substantial weight after LCHS and LCHS/CS compared with naïve males, while female LCHS rats did not compared with naive counterparts. Male LCHS rats had a drastic decrease in hemoglobin from naïve males. Male LCHS/CS rats had reduced colony-forming units-granulocyte, -erythrocyte, -monocyte, -megakaryocyte (CFU-GEMM) and burst-forming unit-erythroid (BFU-E) when compared with female counterparts. Naïve, LCHS, and LCHS/CS males had lower serum iron than their respective female counterparts. Liver transcription of BMP4 and BMP6 was elevated after LCHS and LCHS/CS in males compared with females. The LCHS/CS males had decreased expression of bone marrow pro-erythroid factors compared with LCHS/CS females. Conclusions: After trauma with or without chronic stress, male rats demonstrated increased weight loss, substantial decrease in hemoglobin level, dysregulated iron metabolism, substantial suppression of bone marrow erythroid progenitor growth, and no change in transcription of pro-erythroid factors. These findings confirm that gender is an important variable that impacts anemia recovery and bone marrow dysfunction after traumatic injury and shock in this rat model.

Pachymic Acid Prevents Hemorrhagic Shock-Induced Cardiac Injury by Suppressing M1 Macrophage Polarization and NF-[Formula: see text]B Signaling Pathway.

Hemorrhagic shock (HS) is the leading cause of death in trauma patients. Inflammation following HS can lead to cardiac damage. Pachymic acid (PA), a triterpenoid extracted from Poria cocos, has been found to possess various biological activities, including anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic properties. Our research aims to investigate the protective effects of PA against HS-induced heart damage and the underlying mechanisms involved. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were intraperitoneally injected with PA (7.5 or 15[Formula: see text]mg/kg) daily for three days. Subsequently, we created a rat model of HS by drawing blood through a catheter inserted into the femoral artery followed by resuscitation. The results revealed that HS led to abnormalities in hemodynamics, serum cardiac enzyme levels, and cardiac structure, as well as induced cardiac apoptosis. However, pretreatment with PA effectively alleviated these effects. PA-pretreatment also suppressed mRNA and protein levels of interleukin (IL)-1[Formula: see text], IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor [Formula: see text] (TNF-[Formula: see text]) in the heart tissues of HS rats. Additionally, PA-pretreatment reduced inflammatory cell infiltration and M1 macrophage polarization while exaggerating M2 polarization in HS rat hearts. The study observed a decreased proportion of the expression of of M1 macrophages (CD86[Formula: see text]) and their marker (iNOS), along with an increased proportion of the expression of M2 macrophages (CD206[Formula: see text]) and their marker (Arg-1). Notably, PA-pretreatment suppressed NF-[Formula: see text]B pathway activation via inhibiting NF-[Formula: see text]B p65 phosphorylation and its nuclear translocation. In conclusion, PA-pretreatment ameliorates HS-induced cardiac injury, potentially through its inhibition of the NF-[Formula: see text]B pathway. Therefore, PA treatment holds promise as a strategy for mitigating cardiac damage in HS.

CORM-3 alleviates the intestinal injury in a rodent model of hemorrhage shock and resuscitation: roles of GFAP-positive glia.

Hemorrhagic shock and resuscitation (HSR) can induce severe intestinal damages, thereby leading to sepsis and long-term complications including dysbacteriosis and pulmonary injury. The NOD-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome facilitates inflammation-associated cell recruitment in the gastrointestinal tract, and participates in many inflammatory bowel diseases. Previous studies have shown that exogenous carbon monoxide (CO) exerts neuroprotective effects against pyroptosis after HSR. We aimed to investigate whether carbon monoxide-releasing molecules-3 (CORM-3), an exogenous CO compound, could attenuate HSR-induced intestinal injury and the potential underlying mechanism.Rats were subjected to a HSR model by bleeding and re-infusion. Following resuscitation, 4 mg/kg of CORM-3 was administered intravenously into femoral vein. At 24 h and 7 d after HSR modeling, the pathological changes in intestinal tissues were evaluated by H&E staining. The intestinal pyroptosis, glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)-positive glial pyroptosis, DAO (diamine oxidase) content, intestine tight junction proteins including zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1) and claudin-1 were further detected by immunofluorescence, western blot and chemical assays at 7 d after HSR. CORM-3 administration led to significantly mitigated HSR-induced intestinal injury, aggravation of intestinal pyroptosis indicated by cleaved caspase-1, IL-1ß and IL-18, upregulation of GFAP-positive glial pyroptosis, decreased intensity of ZO-1 and claudin-1 in the jejunum, and increased of DAO in the serum. Nigericin, an agonist of NLRP3, significantly reversed the protective effects of CORM-3. CORM-3 alleviates the intestinal barrier dysfunction in a rodent model of HSR, and the potential mechanism may be associated with inhibition of NLRP3-associated pyroptosis. CORM-3 administration could be a promising therapeutic strategy for intestinal injury after hemorrhagic shock.

PROTECTIVE EFFECTS OF HUMANIN-G IN HEMORRHAGIC SHOCK IN FEMALE MICE VIA AMPKα1-INDEPENDENT MECHANISMS.

ABSTRACT: Introduction: Despite therapeutic advances in hemorrhagic shock, mortality from multiple organ failure remains high. We previously showed that the α1 subunit of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), a crucial regulator of mitochondrial function, exerts a protective role in hemorrhagic shock. Humanin is a mitochondrial peptide with cytoprotective properties against cellular stress. Here, we investigated whether AMPKα1 influences systemic levels of endogenous humanin in hemorrhagic shock and whether treatment with the synthetic analog humanin-G affords beneficial effects. Methods: AMPKα1 wild-type (WT) and knockout (KO) female mice were subjected to hemorrhagic shock followed by resuscitation with blood and lactated Ringer's solution. In short-term studies, mice were treated with humanin-G or vehicle and sacrificed at 3 h after resuscitation; in survival studies, mice were treated with PEGylated humanin-G and monitored for 7 days. Results: Compared with the vehicle WT group, KO mice exhibited severe hypotension, cardiac mitochondrial damage, and higher plasma levels of Th17 cytokines but had similar lung injury and similar plasma elevation of endogenous humanin. Treatment with humanin-G improved lung injury, mean arterial blood pressure, and survival in both WT and KO mice, without affecting systemic cytokine or humanin levels. Humanin-G also ameliorated cardiac mitochondrial damage and increased adenosine triphosphate levels in KO mice. Beneficial effects of humanin-G were associated with lung cytoplasmic and nuclear activation of the signal transducer and activator of transcription-3 (STAT3) in AMPKα1-independent manner with marginal or no effects on mitochondrial STAT3 and complex I subunit GRIM-19. Conclusions: Our data indicate that circulating levels of humanin increase during hemorrhagic shock in AMPKα1-independent fashion as a defense mechanism to counteract metabolic derangement and that administration of humanin-G affords beneficial effects through STAT3 activation even in the absence of a functional AMPKα1.

The protective effect of H151, a novel STING inhibitor, in renal ischemia-reperfusion-induced acute kidney injury.

Renal ischemia-reperfusion (RIR)-induced acute kidney injury (AKI) is a common renal functional disorder with high morbidity and mortality. Stimulator of interferon (IFN) genes (STING) is the cytosolic DNA-activated signaling pathway that mediates inflammation and injury. Our recent study showed that extracellular cold-inducible RNA-binding protein (eCIRP), a newly identified damage-associated molecular pattern, activates STING and exacerbates hemorrhagic shock. H151 is a small molecule that selectively binds to STING and inhibits STING-mediated activity. We hypothesized that H151 attenuates eCIRP-induced STING activation in vitro and inhibits RIR-induced AKI in vivo. In vitro, renal tubular epithelial cells incubated with eCIRP showed increased levels of IFN-ß, STING pathway downstream cytokine, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor-α, and neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin, whereas coincubation with eCIRP and H151 diminished those increases in a dose-dependent manner. In vivo, 24 h after bilateral renal ischemia-reperfusion, glomerular filtration rate was decreased in RIR-vehicle-treated mice, whereas glomerular filtration rate was unchanged in RIR-H151-treated mice. In contrast to sham, serum blood urea nitrogen, creatinine, and neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin were increased in RIR-vehicle, but in RIR-H151, these levels were significantly decreased from RIR-vehicle. In contrast to sham, kidney IFN-ß mRNA, histological injury score, and TUNEL staining were also increased in RIR-vehicle, but in RIR-H151, these levels were significantly decreased from RIR-vehicle. Importantly, in contrast to sham, in a 10-day survival study, survival decreased to 25% in RIR-vehicle, but RIR-H151 had a survival of 63%. In conclusion, H151 inhibits eCIRP-induced STING activation in renal tubular epithelial cells. Therefore, STING inhibition by H151 can be a promising therapeutic intervention for RIR-induced AKI.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Renal ischemia-reperfusion (RIR)-induced acute kidney injury (AKI) is a common renal functional disorder with a high morbidity and mortality rate. Stimulator of interferon genes (STING) is the cytosolic DNA-activated signaling pathway responsible for mediating inflammation and injury. Extracellular cold-inducible RNA-binding protein (eCIRP) activates STING and exacerbates hemorrhagic shock. H151, a novel STING inhibitor, attenuated eCIRP-induced STING activation in vitro and inhibited RIR-induced AKI. H151 shows promise as a therapeutic intervention for RIR-induced AKI.

Effects of Mdivi-1 on Extending the Golden Treatment Time following Hemorrhagic Shock in Hot Environment in Rats.

It is found that a hot environment aggravates hemorrhagic shock-induced internal environment and organ dysfunction. Meanwhile mitochondria show over-fission. Whether inhibition of mitochondrial fission benefits from the early treatment of hemorrhagic shock under a hot environment is unclear. An uncontrolled hemorrhagic shock model in rats is used, and the effects of mitochondrial fission inhibitor mdivi-1 on mitochondrial function, organ function, and survival rate of rats are measured. The results show that 0.1-3 mg/kg mdivi-1 antagonizes hemorrhagic shock-induced mitochondrial fragment. In addition, mdivi-1 improves mitochondrial function, and alleviates hemorrhagic shock-induced oxidative stress and inflammation under a hot environment. Further studies show that 0.1-3 mg/kg Mdivi-1 reduces blood loss, and maintains a mean artery pressure (MAP) of 50-60 mmHg before bleeding-stops after hemorrhagic shock, compared with single Lactate Ringer's (LR) resuscitation. Notably, 1 mg/kg of Mdivi-1 extends the time of hypotensive resuscitation to 2-3 h. During 1 or 2 h of ligation, Mdivi-1 prolongs survival time and protects vital organ function by rescuing mitochondrial morphology and improving mitochondrial function. These results suggest Mdivi-1 is suitable for the early treatment of hemorrhagic shock under a hot environment and can extend the golden treatment time to 2-3 hour for hemorrhagic shock under a hot environment.

A comparison between centrally and systemically administered erythropoietin on kidney protection in a model of fixed-volume hemorrhagic shock in male rats.

BACKGROUND: In this study, a comparison between centrally and systemically administered erythropoietin (EPO) was performed on nephroprotection during hemorrhagic shock (HS) in male rats. METHODS: Male rats were allocated into four experimental groups. (1) Sham; a guide cannula was inserted into the left lateral ventricle and other cannulas were placed into the left femoral artery and vein. (2) HS; stereotaxic surgery was done to insert a cannula in the left lateral ventricle and after a 7-day recovery; hemorrhagic shock and resuscitation were performed. (3) EPO-systemic; the procedure was the same as the HS group except that animals received 300 IU/kg erythropoietin into the femoral vein immediately before resuscitation. (4) EPO-central; animals was treated with erythropoietin (2 IU/rat) into the left lateral ventricle before resuscitation. Arterial oxygen saturation (SaO2) was measured during experiments. Urine and renal tissue samples were stored for ex-vivo indices assessments. RESULTS: Erythropoietin (systemically/centrally administered) significantly improved SaO2, renal functional and oxidative stress parameters and decreased renal inflammatory (TNF-α and IL-6) mRNA expression compared to the HS group. EPO-treated groups showed a decrease in active form of caspase-3 protein level and an increase in autophagy activity in comparison with the HS group. CONCLUSION: Considering the fact that the effective dose of systemic EPO (300 IU/kg) was roughly 50 times higher than that of central administration (2 IU/rat), centrally administered EPO was accompanied by more advantageous consequences than systemic way. EPO is likely to act as a neuro-modulator or neuro-mediator in the central protection of organs including the kidneys.

Fibrinogen Inhibits Metalloproteinase-9 Activation and Syndecan-1 Cleavage to Protect Lung Function in ApoE Null Mice After Hemorrhagic Shock.

INTRODUCTION: Obesity is associated with higher mortality following trauma, although the pathogenesis is unclear. Both obesity and trauma are associated with syndecan-1 shedding and metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) activation, which can adversely affect endothelial cell function. We recently demonstrated that fibrinogen stabilizes endothelial cell surface syndecan-1 to reduce shedding and maintain endothelial barrier integrity. We thus hypothesized that MMP-9 activation and syndecan-1 shedding would be exacerbated by obesity after trauma but attenuated by fibrinogen-based resuscitation. MATERIALS AND METHODS: ApoE null (-/-) mice were fed a Western diet to induce obesity. Mice were subjected to hemorrhage shock and laparotomy then resuscitated with Lactated Ranger's (LR) or LR containing fibrinogen and compared to null and lean sham wild type mice. Mean arterial pressure (MAP) was monitored. Bronchial alveolar lavage protein as an indicator of permeability and lung histopathologic injury were assessed. Syndecan-1 protein and active MMP-9 protein were measured. RESULTS: MAP was similar between lean sham and ApoE-/- sham mice. However, following hemorrhage, ApoE-/- mice resuscitated with fibrinogen had significantly higher MAP than LR mice. Lung histopathologic injury and permeability were increased in LR compared to fibrinogen resuscitated animals. Compared with lean sham mice, both active MMP-9 and cleaved syndecan-1 level were significantly higher in ApoE-/- sham mice. Resuscitation with fibrinogen but not lactated Ringers largely reduced these changes. CONCLUSIONS: Fibrinogen as a resuscitative adjunct in ApoE-/- mice after hemorrhage shock augmented MAP and reduced histopathologic injury and lung permeability, suggesting fibrinogen protects the endothelium by inhibiting MMP-9-mediated syndecan-1 cleavage in obese mice.

The effect of sodium thiosulfate on immune cell metabolism during porcine hemorrhage and resuscitation.

Introduction: Sodium thiosulfate (Na2S2O3), an H2S releasing agent, was shown to be organ-protective in experimental hemorrhage. Systemic inflammation activates immune cells, which in turn show cell type-specific metabolic plasticity with modifications of mitochondrial respiratory activity. Since H2S can dose-dependently stimulate or inhibit mitochondrial respiration, we investigated the effect of Na2S2O3 on immune cell metabolism in a blinded, randomized, controlled, long-term, porcine model of hemorrhage and resuscitation. For this purpose, we developed a Bayesian sampling-based model for 13C isotope metabolic flux analysis (MFA) utilizing 1,2-13C2-labeled glucose, 13C6-labeled glucose, and 13C5-labeled glutamine tracers. Methods: After 3 h of hemorrhage, anesthetized and surgically instrumented swine underwent resuscitation up to a maximum of 68 h. At 2 h of shock, animals randomly received vehicle or Na2S2O3 (25 mg/kg/h for 2 h, thereafter 100 mg/kg/h until 24 h after shock). At three time points (prior to shock, 24 h post shock and 64 h post shock) peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and granulocytes were isolated from whole blood, and cells were investigated regarding mitochondrial oxygen consumption (high resolution respirometry), reactive oxygen species production (electron spin resonance) and fluxes within the metabolic network (stable isotope-based MFA). Results: PBMCs showed significantly higher mitochondrial O2 uptake and lower O 2 • - production in comparison to granulocytes. We found that in response to Na2S2O3 administration, PBMCs but not granulocytes had an increased mitochondrial oxygen consumption combined with a transient reduction of the citrate synthase flux and an increase of acetyl-CoA channeled into other compartments, e.g., for lipid biogenesis. Conclusion: In a porcine model of hemorrhage and resuscitation, Na2S2O3 administration led to increased mitochondrial oxygen consumption combined with stimulation of lipid biogenesis in PBMCs. In contrast, granulocytes remained unaffected. Granulocytes, on the other hand, remained unaffected. O 2 • - concentration in whole blood remained constant during shock and resuscitation, indicating a sufficient anti-oxidative capacity. Overall, our MFA model seems to be is a promising approach for investigating immunometabolism; especially when combined with complementary methods.

Dexmedetomidine improves acute lung injury by activating autophagy in a rat hemorrhagic shock and resuscitation model.

Dexmedetomidine (DEX) can reduce lung injury in a hemorrhagic shock (HS) resuscitation (HSR) model in rats by inhibiting inflammation. Here, we aimed to investigate if these effects of DEX are due to autophagy activation. Therefore, we established HSR rat models and divided them into four groups. HS was induced using a blood draw. The rats were then resuscitated by reinjecting the drawn blood and saline. The rats were sacrificed 24 h after resuscitation. Lung tissues were harvested for histopathological examination, determination of wet/dry lung weight ratio, and detection of the levels of autophagy-related marker proteins LC3, P62, Beclin-1, and the ATG12-ATG5 conjugate. The morphological findings of hematoxylin and eosin staining in lung tissues and the pulmonary wet/dry weight ratio showed that lung injury improved in HSR + DEX rats. However, chloroquine (CQ), an autophagy inhibitor, abolished this effect. Detecting the concentration of autophagy-related proteins showed that DEX administration increased LC3, ATG12-ATG5, and Beclin-1 expression and decreased P62 expression. The expression levels of these proteins were similar to those in the HSR group after CQ + DEX administration. In summary, DEX induced autophagic activation in an HSR model. These findings suggest that DEX administration partially ameliorates HSR-induced lung injury via autophagic activation.

ESTROGEN ALLEVIATES POSTHEMORRHAGIC SHOCK MESENTERIC LYMPH-MEDIATED LUNG INJURY THROUGH AUTOPHAGY INHIBITION.

ABSTRACT: Background: Hemorrhagic shock-induced acute lung injury (ALI) is commonly associated with the posthemorrhagic shock mesenteric lymph (PHSML) return. Whether excessive autophagy is involved in PHSML-mediated ALI remains unclear. The relationship between estrogen treatment and PHSML or autophagy needs to verify. The current study will clarify the role of estrogen in reducing PHSML-mediated ALI through inhibition of autophagy. Methods: First, a hemorrhagic shock model in conscious rats was used to observe the effects of 17ß-estradiol (E2) on intestinal blood flow, pulmonary function, intestinal and pulmonary morphology, and expression of autophagy marker proteins. Meanwhile, the effect of PHSML and autophagy agonist during E2 treatment was also investigated. Secondly, rat primary pulmonary microvascular endothelial cells were used to observe the effect of PHSML, PHSML plus E2, and E2-PHSML (PHSML obtained from rats treated by E2) on the cell viability. Results: Hemorrhagic shock induced intestinal and pulmonary tissue damage and increased wet/dry ratio, reduced intestinal blood flow, along with pulmonary dysfunction characterized by increased functional residual capacity and lung resistance and decreased inspiratory capacity and peak expiratory flow. Hemorrhagic shock also enhanced the autophagy levels in intestinal and pulmonary tissue, which was characterized by increased expressions of LC3 II/I and Beclin-1 and decreased expression of p62. E2 treatment significantly attenuated these adverse changes after hemorrhagic shock, which was reversed by PHSML or rapamycin administration. Importantly, PHSML incubation decreased the viability of pulmonary microvascular endothelial cells, while E2 coincubation or E2-treated lymph counteracted the adverse roles of PHSML. Conclusions: The role of estrogen reducing PHSML-mediated ALI is associated with the inhibition of autophagy.

Genistein, a Soybean Isoflavone, Promotes Wound Healing by Enhancing Endothelial Progenitor Cell Mobilization in Rats with Hemorrhagic Shock.

Severe trauma and hemorrhaging are often accompanied by delayed cutaneous wound healing. Soybean isoflavone is a natural phytoestrogen that has attracted great attention due to its protective effects against various injuries. Endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs) are precursor cells with directional differentiation characteristics. This study is to determine whether genistein (GEN), an isoflavone in soybean products, benefits wound healing in hemorrhagic shock (HS) rats by promoting EPC homing and to investigate the underlying mechanisms. In this study, it is found that GEN promotes skin wound healing in HS rats, which is due at least partly to the mobilization of endogenous EPCs to the injury site via angiotensin II (Ang-II), stromal cell-derived factor-1alpha (SDF-1α), and transforming growth factor beta(TGF-ß) signaling.

VALPROIC ACID INHIBITS CLASSICAL MONOCYTE-DERIVED TISSUE FACTOR AND ALLEVIATES HEMORRHAGIC SHOCK-INDUCED ACUTE LUNG INJURY IN RATS.

ABSTRACT: Background: Monocytes and monocyte-derived tissue factor (TF) promote the development of sepsis-induced acute lung injury (ALI). Classical monocytes (C-Mcs) can be induced to express TF. Valproic acid (VPA) alleviates hemorrhagic shock (HS)-induced ALI (HS/ALI) and inhibits TF expression in monocytes. We hypothesized that C-Mcs and C-Mc-derived TF promoted HS/ALI and that VPA could inhibit C-Mc-derived TF expression and attenuate HS/ALI. Methods: Wistar rats and THP-1 cells were used to evaluate our hypothesis. Monocyte subtypes were analyzed by flow cytometry; mRNA expression was measured by fluorescence quantitative polymerase chain reaction; protein expression was measured by Western blotting, immunofluorescence, or immunohistology; inflammatory cytokines levels were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; and ALI scores were used to determine the degree of ALI. Results: The blood %C-Mcs and C-Mcs/non-C-Mcs ratios, monocyte TF levels, serum and/or lung inflammatory cytokine levels, and ALI scores of HS rats were significantly increased ( P < 0.05). After monocyte depletion and thrombin inhibition, the inflammatory cytokine levels and ALI scores were significantly decreased ( P < 0.05). VPA reduced the %C-Mcs and C-Mc/non-C-Mc ratios, TF expression, inflammatory cytokine levels, and ALI scores during HS ( P < 0.05) and inhibited HS-induced monocyte Egr-1 and p-ERK1/2 expression ( P < 0.05). VPA inhibited hypoxia-induced TF expression in THP-1 cells by regulating the p-ERK1/2-Egr-1 axis. Conclusion: C-Mcs and C-Mc-derived TF accelerate the development of HS/ALI by increasing thrombin production. VPA inhibits HS-induced C-Mc production of TF by regulating the p-ERK1/2-Egr-1 axis and alleviates HS/ALI.