Fractured Understandings of Leprosy in Bombay City, 1867-1933.

Between 1867 and 1933, the understanding of leprosy within the colonial medical establishment in Bombay city was fractured on two issues: whether leprosy was contagious and whether individuals with leprosy should be segregated. This article explores how legislation paved the way for resolving these issues in Bombay between 1867 and 1933. Furthermore, the article seeks to problematize the notion of "diseased bodies" or "lepers" through legislation to protect healthy individuals from possible degeneration. Leprosy in Bombay reflected the anxieties of the city's business elite who were averse to accommodating patients from other parts of British India. In addition, the article studies leprosy and "lepers" by analyzing archival documents and public health reports within the context of Bombay city.

Entre 1867 et 1933, la lèpre au sein de l'institution médicale coloniale de la ville de Bombay a été débattue autour de deux questions : était-elle contagieuse et les personnes atteintes devaient-elles faire l'objet d'une ségrégation? Cet article explore la manière dont la législation a ouvert la voie à la résolution de ces questions à Bombay pour la période étudiée. En outre, l'article cherche à problématiser la notion de « corps malades ¼ ou de « lépreux ¼ au sein d'une législation qui visait à protéger les individus sains d'une éventuelle dégénérescence. La lèpre à Bombay reflétait les inquiétudes de l'élite économique de la ville, peu encline à accueillir des patients originaires d'autres régions de l'Inde britannique. L'article se penche également sur la lèpre et les « lépreux ¼ en analysant des documents d'archives et des rapports de santé publique portant sur la ville de Bombay.

"Facts" and "Ideas": Richard Jones, William Whewell, and the Entangled Histories of Science and Political Economy in Early Nineteenth-Century Britain.

This essay explores hitherto unnoticed conceptual transactions between reflections on scientific method and a rethinking of political-economic categories in early-nineteenth century Britain through the writings of William Whewell and Richard Jones. Closely examining personal correspondences between Whewell and Jones, their works, contemporary debates on political economy and the problem of scientific method, Jones's pedagogic practices, Karl Marx's engagements with Jones, and his receptions as a teacher of political economy in colonial governance and imperial education, I argue that Jones drew upon Whewell's philosophical considerations on the relation between "fact" and "idea," to reconstitute the epistemological orientation of political economy.

M. N. Roy and the Problem of Parliamentary Democracy.

This article offers a new interpretation of anti-colonial constitutional thought of the mid-twentieth century. Historians and political theorists have long viewed the circulation of democratic constitutions at the moment of decolonization in terms of the diffusion of electoral, parliamentary government. This article argues against such a "parliamentary" reading of anti-colonial democracy by examining the political thought of Indian Marxist thinker M. N. Roy (1887-1954). I reconstruct Roy's writings on anti-parliamentary forms of popular sovereignty through the 1940s. Further, I situate Roy's democratic theory as a response to understandings of political representation within the Indian national movement.

Vegetable women: Agricultural education, indigenous knowledge, and becoming settlers in early twentieth century Palestine.

This paper deals with agricultural training for Jewish women settlers in Palestine, and focuses on the first school established by the Jewish botanist and settler Hannah Meisel in 1911. The school was modeled after European schools for horticulture, but grew to serve the settler community and students' need to overcome financial challenges as well as the gendered structure of the labor force. As they pursued agricultural work, proximity to the land, and native status, the women taking part in the training program ultimately combined ideas about scientific progress and European theoretical foundations with Palestinian indigenous knowledge and practices. By appropriating Palestinian agricultural techniques and adopting vegetables as the main sphere of work and production, women settlers both struggled to shift gendered social hierarchies and became deeply involved in the settler-colonial project.

Images of Modern Beauties in the Japanese Colonial Era of Korea (1910-1945).

This study aimed to analyze images of the modern beauty of Korea during the Japanese colonial era. Searches were conducted on Google ( www.google.com ) and Naver ( www.naver.com ) for archives of newspapers and magazines that contained images of beauty. Beauty of the face and neck (the early 1920s): an article (1922) detailed the contemporary beauty standards. It specifies the desired characteristics of the eyes, nose, and mouth and dictates that "the cheeks ought to be plump enough to obscure the cheekbones" and "the neck and shoulders should also be full, concealing the collarbones." Images of beauty showing balance and proportion (the late 1920s): in 1928, a magazine article introduced the concept of "the world's beauty from a scientific perspective," which represented Western esthetics as reflected in the "Canon" of body proportions and Vitruvian Man. From the face to the body (from the late 1920s to 1930s): in 1927, a daily newspaper established the standard for global beauty. During this period, there was an increased emphasis on maintaining the body, rather than just the face, as a crucial aspect of beauty. From the mid-1930s, the concept of a "streamlined" female body shape gained popularity. Male gaze, which fragmented and objectified women's bodies, had been visualized and mass-produced. It is essential to understand how preferences have evolved and to possess skilled hands capable of improving the face and body. To properly sculpt the face and body, keen eyes and adept hands are needed.

Mobile Monkeys and Modified Microbes: Medical Experimentation between Metropolitan and Colonial Laboratories, 1880-ca. 1925.

Following the medical breakthroughs of Pasteur and Koch after 1880, the use of simians became pivotal to laboratory research to develop vaccines and cultivate microbes through the technique of serial passage. These innovations fueled research on multiple diseases and unleashed a demand for simians, which died easily in captivity. European and American colonial expansion facilitated a burgeoning market for laboratory animals that intensified hunting for live animals. This demand created novel opportunities for disease transfers and viral recombinations as simians of different species were confined in precarious settings. As laboratories moved into the colonies for research into a variety of diseases, notably syphilis, sleeping sickness, and malaria, the simian market was intensified. While researchers expected that colonial laboratories offered more natural environments than their metropolitan affiliates, amassing apes, people, microbes, and insects at close quarters instead created unnatural conditions that may have facilitated the spread of undetectable diseases.

A Food Utopia? Italian Colonial Visions of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica, 1911-13.

This article explores the uses of utopian rhetoric of food plenty in Italian colonial visions before the First World War. It examines the travel writings of three leading Italian journalists, Enrico Corradini, Arnaldo Fraccaroli, and Giuseppe Bevione, who visited the Ottoman provinces of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica and campaigned for their colonization by Liberal Italy. By reconstructing their utopian rhetoric of food plenty, this article seeks to show the relevance of arguments about food and agriculture produce to early twentieth century colonial visions, shedding light on an aspect of Italian political thought that has been hitherto marginalized in existing historical scholarship.

Seeds of the Settler Colony: How Peasant and Kazakh Knowledge, Environment, and Bureaucracy Shaped Steppe Agronomy in the Late Russian Empire.

At the turn of the twentieth century, Russian imperial officials hoped to transform the Kazakh Steppe from a zone of pastoral nomadism into a zone of sedentary grain farms. They planned to accomplish this transformation by importing peasants from European Russia and settling them in the steppe along with advanced scientific agricultural practices, equipment, and infrastructure. It was a project that linked steppe settlement and the Russian Empire to a global story of settler colonialism, science, and technology in the first decades of the twentieth century. An examination of this project through the lens of the expansion of grain farming reveals that the changes it wrought were not solely due to European science and technology but were contingent, dependent on local knowledge, the vagaries of climate, and adaptation to the realities of the steppe environment.

Revisiting Traditional Chinese Medicine in Hong Kong during the Influenza Epidemics in the 1950s and 1960s.

This paper examines the supply and utilization of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) in Hong Kong during the influenza epidemics of the 1950s and 1960s. Existing narratives of TCM in Hong Kong have predominantly framed with within the dichotomy of Western medicine "Xiyi" and Chinese medicine "Zhongyi," portraying TCM as marginalized and nearly wiped out by colonial power. Departing from this binary opposition, this study views TCM as an autonomous space that had never been subjugated by the colonial power which opted for minimal interventionist approach toward TCM. By adopting diachronic and synchronic perspectives on Hong Kong's unique environment shaped by its colonial history and the geopolitics of the Cold War in East Asia, particularly its relationships with "China," this research seeks to reassess the role and status of TCM in post-World War II Hong Kong. In Hong Kong, along with other countries in East Asia, traditional medicine has ceded its position as mainstream medicine to Western medicine. Faced with the crisis of "extinction," Chinese medical professionals, including medical practitioners and merchant groups, persistently sought solidarity and "self-renewal." In the 1950s and 1960s, the colonial authorities heavily relied on private entities, including charity hospitals and clinics; furthermore, there was a lack of provision of public healthcare and official prevention measures against the epidemic influenza. As such, it is not surprising that the Chinese utilized TCM, along with Western medicine, to contain the epidemics which brought about an explosive surge in the number of patients from novel influenza viruses. TCM was significantly consumed during these explosive outbreaks of influenza in 1957 and 1968. In making this argument, this paper firstly provides an overview of the associations of Chinese medical practitioners and merchants who were crucial to the development of TCM in Hong Kong. Secondly, it analyzes one level of active provision and consumption of Chinese medicine during the two flu epidemics, focusing on the medical practices of TCM practitioners in the 1957 epidemic. While recognizing the etiologic agent or agents of the disease as influenza viruses, the group of Chinese medical practitioners of the Chinese Medical Society in Hong Kong adopted the basic principles of traditional medicine regarding influenza, such as Shanghanlun and Wenbingxue, to distinguish the disease status among patients and prescribe medicine according to correct diagnoses, which were effective. Thirdly, this paper examines the level of folk culture among the people, who utilized famous prescriptions of Chinese herbal medicine and alimentotherapy, in addition to Chinese patent medicines imported from mainland China. In the context of regional commercial network, this section also demonstrates how Hong Kong served as a sole exporting port of medicinal materials (e.g., Chinese herbs) and Chinese patent medicines from the People's Republic of China to capitalist markets, including Hong Kong, under the socialist planned or controlled economy in the 1950s and 1960s. It was not only the efficacy of TCM in restoring immunity and alleviating symptoms of the human body, but also the voluntary efforts of these Chinese medical practitioners who sought to defend national medicine "Guoyi," positioning it as complementary and alternative medicine to scientific medicine. Additionally, merchants who imported and distributed Chinese medicinal materials and national "Guochan" Chinese patent medicine played a crucial role, as did the people who utilized Chinese medicine, all of which contributed to making TCM thrive in colonial Hong Kong.

Lanka Mahila Samiti, Mary Rutnam and girls' education.

This article engages with the maternal education politics in late colonial Sri Lanka by looking at the implementation of maternal health in the gendered syllabus of middle-class girls' schools. After decades of gender-specific education, the 1930s saw a homogenisation of teachings in these schools through the impact of Mary Rutnam's health manuals. Rutnam was a Canadian doctor who had been living in Sri Lanka for most of her adult life and was seen as a local. She was also active in establishing women's and girls' organisations and political groups. Especially the Lanka Mahila Samiti (LMS) was greatly influential and still is today. The LMS specifically aims at educating the rural women in maternal health and other forms of hygiene with the goal to increase their political and cultural agency. This article examines the relationship between Rutnam's handbooks for girls' schools and the globality of the discourse of motherhood, on the one hand, and the hierarchical divide between the urban middle-class woman and the rural woman, on the other hand. I will argue that by applying the classist discourse of eugenics and hygiene, the teaching of maternal health was transformed in Sri Lanka to create a notion of motherhood that was detached from religion, as it previously was so often framed by it but was highly racialised and classist. This notion of motherhood continues to exist and informs the teaching of sexuality in contemporary Sri Lankan middle-class girls' schools.

Prison Papermaking: Colonial Ideals of Industrial Experimentation in India.

This article questions the economic rationale of colonial experimentation and prison labor, arguing that for many administrators a prison-based experiment's success mattered less than its existence. It examines the position of convict labor and penal discipline within colonial industrial experiments in colonial India, where convicts performed experiments for what one administrator described as "the most penal" form of labor, papermaking. The belief that Indian fibers could open a new export market for global papermaking meant that prisons became prominent sites of experimentation with new pulps. Regional prisons gained state monopolies for handmade paper, often decimating local independent producers. Yet prison and industrial officers counterintuitively positioned the frequent failures of papermaking experiments as a continuing potential source for industrial improvement. They argued that the failures demonstrated the need to improve discipline and supervision. Prison experiments slotted convicts into repetitive, mechanized roles that served European investigations into the utility of Indian products.

The Lancet and colonialism: past, present, and future.

The historical and contemporary alignment of medical and health journals with colonial practices needs elucidation. Colonialism, which sought to exploit colonised people and places, was justified by the prejudice that colonised people's ways of knowing and being are inferior to those of the colonisers. Institutions for knowledge production and dissemination, including academic journals, were therefore central to sustaining colonialism and its legacies today. This invited Viewpoint focuses on The Lancet, following its 200th anniversary, and is especially important given the extent of The Lancet's global influence. We illuminate links between The Lancet and colonialism, with examples from the past and present, showing how the journal legitimised and continues to promote specific types of knowers, knowledge, perspectives, and interpretations in health and medicine. The Lancet's role in colonialism is not unique; other institutions and publications across the British empire cooperated with empire-building through colonisation. We therefore propose investigations and raise questions to encourage broader contestation on the practices, audience, positionality, and ownership of journals claiming leadership in global knowledge production.

The biological standard of living of Korean men under Confucianism, colonialism, capitalism, and communism.

This study focuses on analysing the heights of 10,953 Korean men aged 20 to 40 years who were measured during the Joseon dynasty, the Japanese colonialisation period, and the contemporary period, the latter including both North and South Korea. This study thus provides rare long-term statistical evidence on how biological living standards have developed over several centuries, encompassing Confucianism, colonialism, capitalism, and communism. Using error bar analysis of heights for each historical sample period, this study confirms that heights rose as economic performance improved. For instance, economically poorer North Koreans were expectedly shorter, by about 6 cm, than their peers living in the developed South. Similarly, premodern inhabitants of present-day South Korea, who produced a gross domestic product (GDP) per capita below the world average, were about 4 cm shorter than contemporary South Koreans, who have a mean income above the world average. Along similar lines, North Koreans, who have a GDP per capita akin to that of the premodern Joseon dynasty, have not improved much in height. On the contrary, mean heights of North Koreans were even slightly below (by about 2.4 cm) heights of Joseon dynasty Koreans. All in all, the heights follow a U-shaped pattern across time, wherein heights were lowest during the colonial era. Heights bounced back to Joseon dynasty levels during the interwar period, a time period where South Korea benefitted from international aid, only to rise again and surpass even premodern levels under South Korea's flourishing market economy.

The settler colonial roots and neoliberal afterlife of Problem Behavior Theory.

Problem Behavior Theory (PBT) is an influential psychosocial theory that has shaped-and continues to shape-much research on adolescent development in the United States and abroad. It is the product of over a half-century of research conducted by psychologists-cum-behavioral scientists Lee and Richard Jessor. This article engages two striking features of the history of PBT. First, it tracks how, and to what effect, a theory elaborated to explain the so-called "deviant behavior" of a group of Native Americans was extended to explain the "problem behavior" of white, middle-class, settler youth, before coming to circulate as a universal theory of adolescent behavior. Second, it explores how a theory that was meant to explain individual behaviors by connecting them to their larger social contexts came to be embraced by researchers who have been criticized for doing precisely the opposite. To do so, this article draws from Indigenous and Settler Colonial Studies scholarship and sheds light on how the logics of settler colonialism and neoliberalism have participated in the coproduction of PBT and its reception.

"More a Matter for Medical Men": The King's Road Reserve Relocation and Public Health in Early 20th-Century Sydney, Nova Scotia.

The forced removal and relocation of the King's Road Reserve in Sydney, Nova Scotia, between 1915 and 1926 is a key example of how settlers used public health discourses to dispossess Indigenous lands in Canada. At the turn of the twentieth century, non-Indigenous Sydney residents lobbied the government to remove the Mi'kmaw reserve, which was located in an expanding downtown core. They justified this removal by arguing that Mi'kmaq were public health threats to themselves and their white neighbours. Ottawa responded to this case, and other cases across Canada, by implementing section 49A of the Indian Act in 1911. This amendment allowed settlers to request an Exchequer Court trial to rule on urban reserve relocations if land surrenders could not be obtained. The King's Road Reserve relocation has yet to be examined with a medical lens. Doing so illuminates the centrality of medical expert testimony during this particular episode of twentieth-century colonialism.

Résumé. Le déplacement forcé et la relocalisation de la réserve de King's Road, à Sydney, en Nouvelle-Écosse, entre 1915 et 1926, sont un exemple clé de la manière dont les colons ont utilisé le discours sur la santé publique pour déposséder les autochtones de leurs terres au Canada. Au tournant du XXe siècle, les habitants non autochtones de Sydney ont fait des démarches auprès du gouvernement afin qu'il déplace la réserve micmaque, qui occupait en partie le centre-ville alors en expansion. Leur argument était que les Micmacs constituaient un danger pour la santé publique, à la fois pour le groupe lui-même et pour son voisinage blanc. Ottawa a réagi à ce cas ­ et à d'autres dans tout le Canada ­ par l'entrée en vigueur de l'article 49A de la Loi sur les Indiens, en 1911. Cette modification permettait aux colons de demander à la Cour de l'Échiquier de statuer sur le déplacement d'une réserve urbaine s'il était impossible d'obtenir une cession des terres. La relocalisation de la réserve de King's Road n'avait pas encore été examinée du point de vue médical. En le faisant ici, je mets en lumière le rôle central des témoignages d'experts en médecine au cours de cet épisode particulier du colonialisme au XXe siècle.

"Still I See a Vast Advantage Here":1 The Challenges and Strategies of a Colonial Doctor in 19th-Century Guelph, 1834-58.

In 1834, Dr. Henry Orton immigrated to Guelph, seeking to escape the English class system and attracted by the prospect of land ownership. The analysis of his letters and memoirs offers a rich trove of information about the strategies he pursued to survive in his new home. Joining the scholarly literature based on the analysis of medical casebooks, diaries, and letters, this study seeks to increase understanding of how colonial practitioners made a living. In common with other doctors, Orton describes gruelling work providing poorly paid medical services, competition by alternative practitioners, and seeking financial remuneration through land transactions. Relying on funds from family members in England, he details his partnership in a medical practice, commercial investments, and using his connections as a property owner to obtain paid political and civic offices. In the process, assisted by the emerging liberalism of his adopted country, Henry Orton reveals his contribution to Guelph's development as a middle-class community.

Résumé. En 1834, cherchant à échapper au système anglais des classes sociales et attiré par la perspective de posséder des terres, le Dr Henry Orton immigrait à Guelph. L'analyse de ses lettres et de ses mémoires nous offre un trésor sur les stratégies qu'il a employées pour survivre dans son nouvel environnement. Dans l'esprit des travaux savants qui analysent les recueils de cas médicaux, les journaux intimes et les lettres, cette étude cherche à étoffer nos connaissances sur la manière dont les médecins gagnaient leur vie dans les colonies. Comme d'autres de ses confrères, Orton décrit le travail épuisant et les revenus médiocres que représentent les soins médicaux, la concurrence entre praticiens et ses efforts pour augmenter ses ressources financières au moyen de transactions foncières. Dépendant de l'argent que sa famille lui fait parvenir d'Angleterre, il expose en détail son partenariat avec un cabinet de médecins, ses investissements commerciaux et le recours à ses relations avec d'autres propriétaires terriens pour obtenir des charges politiques et civiles rémunérées. Ce faisant, porté par le libéralisme émergent de son pays d'adoption, Henry Orton nous révèle sa contribution au développement de la classe moyenne dans la collectivité de Guelph.

Mahamari Plague: Rats, Colonial Medicine and Indigenous Knowledge in Kumaon and Garhwal, India.

Colonial approaches to animal and zoonotic diseases are often scrutinized in terms of their recognition or dismissal of indigenous knowledge. In this article I examine British colonial approaches to "Mahamari plague" in mid-nineteenth century Kumaon and Garhwal, in the Indian Himalayas. Discussing two key colonial medical expeditions in the region, I argue that the eventual recognition of the validity of Kumaoni and Garhwali knowledge of Mahamari and its relation to rats intensified intrusive colonial intervention on indigenous lifeways. I examine this neglected impact of the colonial recognition of indigenous knowledge and urge for approaches that place more emphasis on the practical impact of colonial epistemologies.

Gomastahs, Peons, Police and Chowdranies: The Role of Indian Subordinate in the Functioning of the Lock Hospitals and the Indian Contagious Diseases Act, 1805 to 1889.

Recent scholarship on the social history of health and medicine in colonial India has moved beyond enclavist or hegemonic aspects of imperial medicine and has rather focused on the role of Indian intermediaries and the fractured nature of colonial hegemony. Drawing inspiration from this scholarship, the article highlights the significance of the Indian subordinates in the lock hospital system in the nineteenth century Madras Presidency. This study focuses on a class of Indian subordinates called the "gomastah", who were employed to detect clandestine prostitution in Madras to control the spread of venereal disease. It also underlines the role of other native and non-native subordinates such as Dhais, Chowdranies and Matrons, the ways in which they became indispensable for the smoother operation of the Contagious Diseases Act and the lock hospitals on a day-to-day basis. By emphasising how Indian subordinates were able to bring in caste biases within colonial governmentality, adding another layer to the colonial prejudices and xenophobia against the native population, it underlines the fact that there was not a one-way appropriation or facilitation of the coloniser's knowledge or biases by the colonised intermediaries. Rather, it argues for an interaction between them, and highlights the complexities of caste hierarchies and prejudice within the everyday colonial governmentality. Moreover, the article focuses on the consequent chaos and inherent power struggle between different factions of colonial staff.