Bendamustine: A review of pharmacology, clinical use and immunological effects (Review).

Bendamustine is an alkylating agent classified into the group of nitrogen mustard analogues, synthesized almost sixty years ago. It was registered in former East Germany in 1971 and approved by the US Food and Drug Administration in 2008 for treatment of chronic lymphocytic leukemia and indolent B­cell non­Hodgkin lymphoma. Considering its beneficial properties in the therapy of relapsed or refractory hematological malignancies, synergistic effects with other antineoplastic agents and increasing recent reports on its immunomodulatory effects, bendamustine has once again gained its justified attention. The uniqueness of bendamustine­mediated effects should be observed keeping in mind its distinctive structure with structural similarities to both alkylating agents and purine analogs. In the present review, the current knowledge on the use of bendamustine in oncology, its pharmacokinetics, mechanism of action and toxicity was summarized. In addition, its immune­modulating effects that have not been fully elucidated so far are emphasized, hoping to encourage further investigations of this unique drug.

1,3,5-Triazine Nitrogen Mustards with Different Peptide Group as Innovative Candidates for AChE and BACE1 Inhibitors.

A series of new analogs of nitrogen mustards (4a-4h) containing the 1,3,5-triazine ring substituted with dipeptide residue were synthesized and evaluated for the inhibition of both acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and ß-secretase (BACE1) enzymes. The AChE inhibitory activity studies were carried out using Ellman's colorimetric method, and the BACE1 inhibitory activity studies were carried out using fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET). All compounds displayed considerable AChE and BACE1 inhibition. The most active against both AChE and BACE1 enzymes were compounds A and 4a, with an inhibitory concentration of AChE IC50 = 0.051 µM; 0.055 µM and BACE1 IC50 = 9.00 µM; 11.09 µM, respectively.

Synthesis and evaluation of new dinitrobenzamide mustards in human prostate cancer.

Tumor hypoxia has been widely explored over the years as a diagnostic and therapeutic marker. Herein, we have reported the design and synthesis of a series of dinitrobenzamide mustards (DNBM) based on the PR-104A hypoxia-selective prodrug. Specifically, we explored the impact of various leaving groups and the introduction of a carboxylic acid group on the biological performance of the DNBM constructs. Once in hand, the Log D values, cytotoxicity in PC-3 and DU-145 human prostate cancer cells lines and the hypoxia selectivities of the DNBM analogs were examined. Overall, the DNBM constructs were found to be tolerant to modifications with none of the explored modifications substantially degrading the cytotoxic potential of the constructs.

Derivatives of nitrogen mustard anticancer agents with improved cytotoxicity.

In previous studies, we demonstrated that esters of bendamustine containing a basic moiety are far more cytotoxic anticancer agents than their parent compound and that the substitution of the labile ester moiety by a branched ester or an amide markedly increases stability in the blood plasma. In the current study, we showed that this substitution was bioisosteric. Aiming at increased cytotoxicity, we introduced the same modification to related nitrogen mustards: 6-isobendamustine, chlorambucil, and melphalan. The synthesis was accomplished using the coupling reagents N,N'-dicyclohexylcarbodiimide or 2-(1H-benzotriazole-1-yl)-1,1,3,3-tetramethylaminium tetrafluoroborate. Cytotoxicity against a panel of diverse cancer cells (carcinoma, sarcoma, and malignant melanoma) was assessed in a kinetic chemosensitivity assay. The target compounds showed cytotoxic or cytocidal effects at concentrations above 1 µM: a striking enhancement over bendamustine and 6-isobendamustine, both ineffective against the selected cancer cells at concentrations up to 50 µM, and a considerable improvement over chlorambucil, showing some potency only against the sarcoma cells. Melphalan was almost as effective as the target compounds-derivatization only provided a small improvement. The novel cytostatics are of interest as model compounds for analyzing a correlation between cytotoxicity and membrane transport and for the treatment of malignancies.

Prevalence of natural and acquired antibodies to amustaline/glutathione pathogen reduced red blood cells.

BACKGROUND: The INTERCEPT™ Blood System for Red Blood Cells (RBCs) utilizes amustaline (S-303) and glutathione (GSH) to inactivate pathogens and leukocytes in transfused RBCs. Treatment-emergent low titer non-hemolytic antibodies to amustaline/GSH RBC were detected in clinical trials using a prior version of the process. The amustaline/GSH process was re-formulated to decrease S-303 RBC adduct formation. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: A standard three-cell antibody screening panel was modified to include reagent red cells (RRC) with high (S-303H) or low (S-303L) S-303 adduct density as assessed by flow cytometry, representative of the original and current amustaline/GSH treatment processes, respectively. General hospital and RBC transfusion-dependent patients never exposed, and clinical trial subjects exposed to amustaline/GSH RBC were screened for antibodies to amustaline/GSH RBC using a standardized agglutination assay. RESULTS: Twelve (0.1%) of 10,721 general hospital and 5 (0.5%) of 998 repeatedly-transfused patients not previously exposed to amustaline/GSH RBCs expressed natural, low titer (2-32) IgM and/or IgG (non-IgG1 or IgG3 isotype) antibodies with acridine (a structural element of amustaline) (n = 14) or non-acridine (n = 3) specificity. 11 of 17 sera reacted with S-303L panel RRCs. In clinical studies 81 thalassemia and 25 cardiac surgery patients were transfused with a total of 1085 amustaline/GSH RBCs and no natural or treatment-emergent S-303 antibodies were detected. CONCLUSION: Standardized RRC screening panels are sensitive for the detection of natural and acquired S-303-specific antibodies. Natural low titer antibodies to amustaline/GSH RBC are present in 0.15% of naïve patients. The clinical relevance of these antibodies appears minimal but is under further investigation.

Ultrasound Enhances ZD2767P-Carboxypeptidase G2 against Chemoresistant Ovarian Cancer Cells by Altering the Intracellular Pharmacokinetics of ZD2767D.

Prodrug-carboxypeptidase G2 (e.g., ZD2767P+CPG2) can realize a targeted treatment where the specific advantage is a lack of CPG2 analogues in humans, but it is limited by low efficacy. Here ultrasound was employed to enhance ZD2767P+CPG2 (i.e., ZD2767P+CPG2+US) against chemoresistant human ovarian cancer cells. The release dynamics of ZD2767D (activated drug) by CPG2 were investigated. The in vitro efficacy was explored in SKOV3 and SKOV3/DDP (cisplatin-resistant subline) cells; spectrophotometry was established to quantify ZD2767P and ZD2767D, and then intracellular pharmacokinetics were evaluated. The in vivo efficacy was validated in both subcutaneous and orthotopic tumors. With insonation, the ZD2767D concentration was increased during an early period. Insonation synergized ZD2767P+CPG2 to enhance cell death and apoptosis, and efficacies in SKOV3 and SKOV3/DDP cells were similar. Intracellular pharmacokinetics of ZD2767D were nonproportional, and insonation increased the peak level, area under the level vs time curve, and mean residence time. In subcutaneous xenografts, ZD2767P+CPG2 and ZD2767P+CPG2+US resulted in volume-inhibitory rates of 20.4% and 26.5% in SKOV3 tumors and 36.8% and 81.6% in SKOV3/DDP tumors, respectively. In the orthotopic tumor model, the survival time in group ZD2767P+CPG2 or ZD2767P+CPG2+US was prolonged compared with group control, in SKOV3 (33.0 ± 3.5 or 39.2 ± 1.8 vs 25.0 ± 1.6 days, p < 0.0001) and SKOV3/DDP (16.2 ± 4.8 or 22.3 ± 7.3 vs 8.7 ± 3.9 days, p = 0.0015) tumors. These data indicated that ZD2767P+CPG2+US was effective against resistant ovarian cancer cells.

Synthesis of flavonoids nitrogen mustard derivatives and study on their antitumor activity in vitro.

Several novel flavonoids nitrogen mustard derivatives were synthesized and evaluated for antiproliferative activity against seven human cancer cell lines (HeLa, A549, HepG2, MCF7, SH-SY5Y, PC-3, DU145) by the MTT assay in vitro. The resulting IC50 showed that most compounds exhibited better inhibitory activity against seven cell lines. IC50 values of some compounds were lower than well-known melphalan. In particular, compound 8b was the most promising compound which inhibited HeLa cells with IC50 value of 1.43 µM. It showed excellent antitumor activity against these seven cell lines. Besides, it could arrest cell cycle of HeLa in G2/M phase and induce cell apoptosis. The loss of mitochondrial membrane potential may be an apoptotic mediating factor.

Nitrogen Mustards as Anticancer Chemotherapies: Historic Perspective, Current Developments and Future Trends.

Nitrogen mustards, a family of DNA alkylating agents, marked the start of cancer pharmacotherapy. While traditionally characterized by their dose-limiting toxic effects, nitrogen mustards have been the subject of intense research efforts, which have led to safer and more effective agents. Even though the alkylating prodrug mustards were first developed decades ago, active research on ways to improve their selectivity and cytotoxic efficacy is a currently active topic of research. This review addresses the historical development of the nitrogen mustards, outlining their mechanism of action, and discussing the improvements on their therapeutic profile made through rational structure modifications. A special emphasis is made on discussing the nitrogen mustard prodrug category, with Cyclophosphamide (CPA) serving as the main highlight. Selected insights on the latest developments on nitrogen mustards are then provided, limiting such information to agents that preserve the original nitrogen mustard mechanism as their primary mode of action. Additionally, future trends that might follow in the quest to optimize these invaluable chemotherapeutic medications are succinctly suggested.

Interactions of newly synthesized platinum nanoparticles with ICR-191 and their potential application.

One of the greatest challenges of modern medicine is to find cheaper and easier ways to produce transporters for biologically active substances, which will provide selective and efficient drug delivery to the target cells, while causing low toxicity towards healthy cells. Currently, metal-based nanoparticles are considered a successful and viable solution to this problem. In this work, we propose the use of novel synthesis method of platinum nanoparticles (PtNPs) connected with their precise biophysical characterization and assessment of their potential toxicity. To work as an efficient nanodelivery platform, nanoparticles should interact with the desired active compounds spontaneously and non-covalently. We investigated possible direct interactions of PtNPs with ICR-191, a model acridine mutagen with well-established biophysical properties and mutagenic activity, by Dynamic Light Scattering, fluorescence spectroscopy, and Isothermal Titration Calorimetry. Moreover, to determine the biological activity of ICR-191-PtNPs aggregates, we employed Ames mutagenicity test, eukaryotic cell line analysis and toxicity test against the model organism Caenorhabditis elegans. PtNPs' interesting physicochemical properties associated to the lack of toxicity in a tested range of concentrations, as well as their ability to modulate ICR-191 biological activity, suggest that these particles successfully work as potential delivery platforms for different biologically active substances.

Nitrogen Mustards as Alkylating Agents: A Review on Chemistry, Mechanism of Action and Current USFDA Status of Drugs.

BACKGROUND & OBJECTIVE: Nitrogen mustard derivatives form one of the major classes of anti-cancer agents in USFDA approved drugs list. These are polyfunctional alkylating agents which are distinguished by a unique mechanism of adduct formation with DNA involving cross-linking between guanine N-7 of one strand of DNA with the other. The generated cross-linking is irreversible and leads to cell apoptosis. Hence it is of great interest to explore this class of anticancer alkylating agents. METHODS: An exhaustive list of reviews, research articles, patents, books, patient information leaflets, and orange book is presented and the contents related to nitrogen mustard anti-cancer agents have been reviewed. Attempts are made to present synthesis schemes in a simplified manner. The mechanism of action of the drugs and their side effects are also systematically elaborated. RESULTS: This review provides a platform for understanding all aspects of such drugs right from synthesis to their mechanism of action and side effects, and lists USFDA approved ANDA players among alkylating anticancer agents in the current market. CONCLUSION: Perusing this article, generic scientists will be able to access literature information in this domain easily to gain insight into the nitrogen mustard alkylating agents for further ANDA development. It will help the scientific and research community to continue their pursuit for the design of newer and novel heterocyclic alkylating agents of this class in the coming future.

Modulation of the reactivity of nitrogen mustards by metal complexation: approaches to modify their therapeutic properties.

The alkylating agents bearing the -N(CH2CH2Cl)2 moiety, commonly known as 'the nitrogen mustards,' are among the first chemotherapeutic agents against cancer. They form covalent alkyl linkages due to reaction with nucleophilic entities viz. N7 of guanine in DNA. The reactivity of nitrogen mustards may be controlled in various ways, which include metabolic activation, reductive or hypoxic activation and metal complexation. This review discusses how the metal complexation of nitrogen mustards affects their reactivity and mechanistic pathways. The discussion encompasses those transition metal complexes for which the structure has been well characterized and cytotoxicity studies have been performed. This review discusses how the binding of the metal centre along with its oxidation state helps to control the reactivity of the nitrogen mustards. The discussion emphasizes the effect of the reduction potential of the coordinated metal center on the reactivity of the respective mustard under specific conditions, the dependence of efficiency and specificity on the stability of the reduced species and the importance of steric hindrance around the metal center. The insight into the mechanism of action is expected to provide a better understanding to overcome the existing lacunae and design better molecules of this class which have excellent potential, given the ever growing need for therapeutics against cancer.

Discovery and Optimization of Novel Hydrogen Peroxide Activated Aromatic Nitrogen Mustard Derivatives as Highly Potent Anticancer Agents.

We describe several new aromatic nitrogen mustards with various aromatic substituents and boronic esters that can be activated with H2O2 to efficiently cross-link DNA. In vitro studies demonstrated the anticancer potential of these compounds at lower concentrations than those of other clinically used chemotherapeutics, such as melphalan and chlorambucil. In particular, compound 10, bearing an amino acid ester chain, is selectively cytotoxic toward breast cancer and leukemia cells that have inherently high levels of reactive oxygen species. Importantly, 10 was 10-14-fold more efficacious than melphalan and chlorambucil for triple-negative breast-cancer (TNBC) cells. Similarly, 10 is more toxic toward primary chronic-lymphocytic-leukemia cells than either chlorambucil or the lead compound, 9. The introduction of an amino acid side chain improved the solubility and permeability of 10. Furthermore, 10 inhibited the growth of TNBC tumors in xenografted mice without obvious signs of general toxicity, making this compound an ideal drug candidate for clinical development.

Therapeutic journery of nitrogen mustard as alkylating anticancer agents: Historic to future perspectives.

Cancer is considered as one of the most serious health problems today. The discovery of nitrogen mustard as an alkylating agent in 1942, opened a new era in the cancer chemotherapy. This valuable class of alkylating agent exerts its biological activity by binding to DNA, cross linking two strands, preventing DNA replication and ultimate cell death. At the molecular level, nitrogen lone pairs of nitrogen mustard generate a strained intermediate "aziridinium ion" which is very reactive towards DNA of tumor cell as well as normal cell resulting in various adverse side effects alogwith therapeutic implications. Over the last 75 years, due to its high reactivity and peripheral cytotoxicity, numerous modifications have been made in the area of nitrogen mustard to improve its efficacy as well as enhancing drug delivery specifically to tumor cells. This review mainly discusses the medicinal chemistry aspects in the development of various classes of nitrogen mustards (mechlorethamine, chlorambucil, melphalan, cyclophosphamide and steroidal based nitrogen mustards). The literature collection includes the historical and the latest developments in these areas. This comprehensive review also attempted to showcase the recent progress in the targeted delivery of nitrogen mustards that includes DNA directed nitrogen mustards, antibody directed enzyme prodrug therapy (ADEPT), gene directed enzyme prodrug therapy (GDEPT), nitrogen mustard activated by glutathione transferase, peptide based nitrogen mustards and CNS targeted nitrogen mustards.

Improving the Potency of Cancer Immunotherapy by Dual Targeting of IDO1 and DNA.

Herein we report the first exploration of a dual-targeting drug design strategy to improve the efficacy of small-molecule cancer immunotherapy. New hybrids of indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase 1 (IDO1) inhibitors and DNA alkylating nitrogen mustards that respectively target IDO1 and DNA were rationally designed. As the first-in-class examples of such molecules, they were found to exhibit significantly enhanced anticancer activity in vitro and in vivo with low toxicity. This proof-of-concept study has established a critical step toward the development of a novel and effective immunotherapy for the treatment of cancers.

Engineering a Multifunctional Nitroreductase for Improved Activation of Prodrugs and PET Probes for Cancer Gene Therapy.

Gene-directed enzyme-prodrug therapy (GDEPT) is a promising anti-cancer strategy. However, inadequate prodrugs, inefficient prodrug activation, and a lack of non-invasive imaging capabilities have hindered clinical progression. To address these issues, we used a high-throughput Escherichia coli platform to evolve the multifunctional nitroreductase E. coli NfsA for improved activation of a promising next-generation prodrug, PR-104A, as well as clinically relevant nitro-masked positron emission tomography-imaging probes EF5 and HX4, thereby addressing a critical and unmet need for non-invasive bioimaging in nitroreductase GDEPT. The evolved variant performed better in E. coli than in human cells, suggesting optimal usefulness in bacterial rather than viral GDEPT vectors, and highlighting the influence of intracellular environs on enzyme function and the shaping of promiscuous enzyme activities within the "black box" of in vivo evolution. We provide evidence that the dominant contribution to improved PR-104A activity was enhanced affinity for the prodrug over-competing intracellular substrates.

Amustaline (S-303) treatment inactivates high levels of Zika virus in red blood cell components.

BACKGROUND: The potential for Zika virus (ZIKV) transfusion-transmission (TT) has been demonstrated in French Polynesia and Brazil. Pathogen inactivation (PI) of blood products is a proactive strategy to inactivate TT pathogens including arboviruses. Inactivation of West Nile, dengue, Zika, and chikungunya viruses was previously demonstrated by photochemical treatment with amotosalen and ultraviolet A (UVA) illumination. In this study, we evaluated ZIKV inactivation in red blood cell (RBC) components by a chemical approach that uses amustaline (S-303) and glutathione (GSH). STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: RBC components were spiked with a high titer of ZIKV. Viral titers (infectivity) and ZIKV RNA loads (reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction) were measured in spiked RBCs before and after S-303 and GSH treatment and confirmed using repetitive passages in cell culture. A mock-treated arm validated the approach by demonstrating stability of the virus (infectivity and RNA load) during the process. RESULTS: The mean ZIKV infectivity titer and RNA load in RBCs were 5.99 ± 0.2 log 50% tissue culture infectious dose (TCID50 )/mL and 7.75 ± 0.16 log genomic equivalents/mL before inactivation. No infectivity was detected immediately after S-303 and GSH treatment and after five serial passages in cell culture. CONCLUSION: Complete ZIKV inactivation of more than 5.99 log TCID50 /mL in RBCs was achieved using S-303 and GSH at levels higher than those found in asymptomatic ZIKV-infected blood donors. Therefore, the S-303 and GSH PI system is promising for mitigating the risk of ZIKV TT.

Red blood cell concentrates treated with the amustaline (S-303) pathogen reduction system and stored for 35 days retain post-transfusion viability: results of a two-centre study.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Pathogen reduction technology using amustaline (S-303) was developed to reduce the risk of transfusion-transmitted infection and adverse effects of residual leucocytes. In this study, the viability of red blood cells (RBCs) prepared with a second-generation process and stored for 35 days was evaluated in two different blood centres. MATERIALS AND METHODS: In a single-blind, randomized, controlled, two-period crossover study (n = 42 healthy subjects), amustaline-treated (Test) or Control RBCs were prepared in random sequence and stored for 35 days. On day 35, an aliquot of 51 Cr/99m Tc radiolabeled RBCs was transfused. In a subgroup of 26 evaluable subjects, 24-h RBC post-transfusion recovery, mean life span, median life span (T50 ) and life span area under the curve (AUC) were analysed. RESULTS: The mean 24-h post-transfusion recovery of Test and Control RBCs was comparable (83·2 ± 5·2 and 84·9 ± 5·9%, respectively; P = 0·06) and consistent with the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) criteria for acceptable RBC viability. There were differences in the T50 between Test and Control RBCs (33·5 and 39·7 days, respectively; P < 0·001), however, these were within published reference ranges of 28-35 days. The AUC (per cent surviving × days) for Test and Control RBCs was similar (22·6 and 23·1 per cent surviving cells × days, respectively; P > 0·05). Following infusion of Test RBCs, there were no clinically relevant abnormal laboratory values or adverse events. CONCLUSION: RBCs prepared using amustaline pathogen reduction meet the FDA criteria for post-transfusion recovery and are metabolically and physiologically appropriate for transfusion following 35 days of storage.

IMB-6G, a novel N-substituted sophoridinic acid derivative, induces endoplasmic reticulum stress-mediated apoptosis via activation of IRE1α and PERK signaling.

Sophoridinic acid derivatives have received considerable attentions for their potencies in cancer therapy. IMB-6G is a novel N-substituted sophoridinic acid derivative with potent cytotoxicity against tumor cells. In the present study, we explored the antitumor abilities of IMB-6G in human hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cells and investigated the underlying mechanisms. We found that IMB-6G inhibited cell growth and induced mitochondrial-dependent apoptosis in HepG2 and SMMC7721 cells. Analyses of the molecular mechanism of IMB-6G-induced apoptosis indicated IMB-6G induced endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress activation. Incubation of HCC cells with IMB-6G induced increase in Bip and CHOP levels, which precede induction of apoptosis. Further study showed IMB-6G activated IRE1α and PERK pathways but did not stimulated ATF6 pathway in HCC cells. Moreover, silencing of IRE1α dramatically abrogated IMB-6G-induced pro-apoptotic ASK1-JNK signaling. Importantly, interruption of CHOP rendered HCC cells sensitive to IMB-6G-induced apoptosis via inactivation of Bim, PUMA and Bax. Thus, the IRE1α-ASK1 and PERK-CHOP pathways may be a novel molecular mechanism of IMB-6G-induced apoptosis. Collectively, our study demonstrates that IMB-6G induces ER stress-mediated apoptosis by activating IRE1α and PERK pathways. Our findings provide a rationale for the potential application of IMB-6G in HCC therapy.

Covalent DNA-Protein Cross-Linking by Phosphoramide Mustard and Nornitrogen Mustard in Human Cells.

N,N-Bis-(2-chloroethyl)-phosphorodiamidic acid (phosphoramide mustard, PM) and N,N-bis-(2-chloroethyl)-amine (nornitrogen mustard, NOR) are the two biologically active metabolites of cyclophosphamide, a DNA alkylating drug commonly used to treat lymphomas, breast cancer, certain brain cancers, and autoimmune diseases. PM and NOR are reactive bis-electrophiles capable of cross-linking cellular biomolecules to form covalent DNA-DNA and DNA-protein cross-links (DPCs). In the present work, a mass spectrometry-based proteomics approach was employed to characterize PM- and NOR-mediated DNA-protein cross-linking in human cells. Following treatment of human fibrosarcoma cells (HT1080) with cytotoxic concentrations of PM, over 130 proteins were found to be covalently trapped to DNA, including those involved in transcriptional regulation, RNA splicing/processing, chromatin organization, and protein transport. HPLC-ESI(+)-MS/MS analysis of proteolytic digests of DPC-containing DNA from NOR-treated cells revealed a concentration-dependent formation of N-[2-[cysteinyl]ethyl]-N-[2-(guan-7-yl)ethyl]amine (Cys-NOR-N7G) conjugates, confirming that it cross-links cysteine thiols of proteins to the N7 position of guanines in DNA. Cys-NOR-N7G adduct numbers were higher in NER-deficient xeroderma pigmentosum cells (XPA) as compared with repair proficient cells. Furthermore, both XPA and FANCD2 deficient cells were sensitized to PM treatment as compared to that of wild type cells, suggesting that Fanconi anemia and nucleotide excision repair pathways are involved in the removal of cyclophosphamide-induced DNA damage.