Arterial supply to the rabbit male genital organs.

The improvement of veterinary care has prolonged the lifespan of rabbits, and the number of rabbits suffering from age-related, male genital disorders may increase in the near future. This could result in increased opportunities for male genital surgery, requiring knowledge of their arterial anatomy, which, however, has not been sufficiently studied. Therefore, the arteries supplying the genitals were observed in 20 male New Zealand White rabbits. The testis was supplied by the testicular artery originating from the abdominal aorta. The right testicular artery usually emerged at a more cranial level than the left artery (65%). The testicular artery encircled the testis in the sagittal plane and bifurcated (95%) or trifurcated (5%) at the caudal extremity of the testis before entering the parenchyma. The epididymis was supplied by the epididymal branches, either from only the testicular artery (75% of the right and 80% of the left halves) or from both the testicular artery and aorta. The deferent duct was supplied in all halves by the dorsal and ventral branches of the deferential artery, which usually arose from the umbilical artery. The accessory genital glands were supplied by the dorsal branch of the deferential artery and the prostatic artery. The latter, which emerged from the internal iliac artery, exhibited 3 branching types. The most frequent type (55% of the right and 45% of the left halves) had 3 branches supplying the accessory genital glands. These findings will help improve rabbit genital surgery.

[Application value of elastic ultrasound and contrast-enhanced ultrasonography in evaluating testicular blood supply after blockage of the vas deferens artery].

OBJECTIVE: To explore the application value of elastic ultrasound (EUS) and contrast-enhanced ultrasonography (CEUS) in detecting the changes of testicular blood supply after blockage of the vas deferens artery. METHODS: This study included 11 cases of microscopic varicocele ligation. We obtained the EUS and CEUS values of the patients before and after blocking the vas deferens artery and analyzed the data by paired comparison. RESULTS: After the blockage of the vas deferens artery, the testicular hardness was reduced across the tunica albuginea and within the testis, with Ave decreased from 11.44 ± 2.52 before to 6.21 ± 1.16 after the blockage of the vas deferens artery across the tunica albuginea (P < 0.01) and from 3.99 ± 1.03 before to 3.27 ± 0.70 after the blockage within the testis (P = 0.012). The AUC in the epididymis was reduced from 80.98 ± 60.74 before to 42.82 ± 16.01 after the blockage (P = 0.021), and the AWi in the central testis from 17.19 ± 11.09 before to 11.03 ± 8.58 after the blockage (P = 0.034). No statistically significant differences, however, were observed in the values obtained close to the tunica albuginea or in the Awi and Awo in the testis after the blockage (P > 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Elastic ultrasound and contrast-enhanced ultrasonography play important roles in evaluating the changes of testicular blood supply in different states.

A rare variation of the testicular blood supply by the deferential artery / Rara variación del suministro de sangre testicular por la arteria del conducto deferente

Any compression of testicular arteries may lead to loss of spermatogenesis and gonadal hormone production, existence of the variational arteries is accountable in cases of vasoligation, orchidopexy and other surgical approach on them. Anomalies of the testicular blood arteries were observed during dissection of the pelvic cavity in a 68-year-old male cadaver. This report describes a very rare case of lack of testicular arteries. For the blood supply to the testis, thick deferential arteries form some vascular winding and loops and course accompanied by deferent duct to the testis. This case report would serve as ray of light for knowledge of the possible variations of the testicular arteries during surgical procedures.

Cualquier compresión de las arterias testiculares puede conducir a la pérdida de la espermatogénesis y la producción de hormonas gonadales. La existencia de variaciones en las arterias testiculares es relevante en los casos de vasectomía, orquidopexia y otros tipos de abordaje quirúrgico. Se observaron anomalías de las arterias testiculares durante la disección de la cavidad pélvica de un cadáver de sexo masculino de 68 años de edad. En este trabajo se describe un caso muy poco frecuente de ausencia de arterias testiculares. Para el suministro sanguíneo del testículo, se encontraron arterias deferentes gruesas que producen sinuosidad y tortuosidad vascular junto al conducto deferente en los testículos. Este caso podría ser útil para el conocimiento de las posibles variaciones de las arterias testiculares durante los procedimientos quirúrgicos.

Anatomical Variations of the Blood Vascular System in Veterinary Medicine. The Internal Iliac Artery of the Dog. Part Two.

The aim of this study was to investigate the variability of the internal pudendal artery. Two hundred and thirty-two pelvic halves from 116 adult dogs were examined. Twenty-six anatomical variations were found, thirteen occurring in more than 5% of the dogs. Anatomical variations were grouped in relation to the origin of the prostatic/vaginal arteries, middle rectal artery, urethral artery, ventral perineal and caudal rectal arteries. The chi-squared test was used to analyse differences in sex, side of the body, profile and size, and the results were considered statistically significant when P ≤ 0.05. An identical vascular pattern in both hemipelvises was found for most of the anatomical variations described.

[Blood vessels and nerves surrounding the seminal vesicles: A clinical anatomic study].

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the precise locations of the blood vessels and nerves surrounding the seminal vesicles (SV) in men and provide some anatomical evidence for SV-related minimally invasive surgery. METHODS: We observed the courses and distribution of the blood vessels and nerves surrounding SVs and obtained the data for positioning the SV neuroplexes in 20 male pelvises. RESULTS: One branch of the neuroplexes was distributed to the SVs bilaterally with the neurovascular bundles, (2.85 ± 0.18) cm from the median sulcus of the prostate (MSP), while another branch ran through the Denonvillier fascia behind the SV, (0.81 ± 0.06) cm from the MSP. The arterial SVs (ASV) originated from the inferior vesical artery and fell into 4 types, 55% going directly to the SVs as one branch, 15% running between the SV and the ampulla of the deferent duct as another branch, 25% downward as 2 branches to the SV and between the SV and the ampulla of the deferent duct respectively, and 5% as the other ASVs. The shortest distance from the ASV through the prostatic neuroplexus to the posterior SV was (1.08 ± 0.09) cm. CONCLUSION: In SV resection, neuroplexus injury can be reduced with a bilateral distance of < 2.85 cm and a posterior distance of < 0.81 cm from the MSP, and so can bleeding by vascular ligation between the SV and the ampulla of the deferent duct.

Effects of angiogenesis inhibition by spironolactone on isolated vas deferens contractility in an experimental varicocele model in rats.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effect of spironolactone, as an angiogenesis inhibitor, on the isometric contractile responses in isolated vas deferens strips from left varicocele-induced rats. METHODS: Twenty-four adult (12-14 months) male Wistar albino rats were randomly assigned to 4 groups (n = 6 in each): (1) Control group, (2) sham-operated group, (3) experimental left varicocele group, and (4) Spironolactone (20 mg/kg/d)-treated experimental left varicocele group. Histopathologic and immunohistochemical (CD31 staining) findings in the rat testis and functional findings in the rat isolated vas deferens were investigated. RESULTS: Angiogenesis increased in the varicocele group and the spironolactone inhibited angiogenesis in the spironolactone-treated group. Spironolactone seemed to change phenylephrine and serotonin responses in the left vas deferens. CONCLUSION: It is possible that by inhibiting angiogenesis, spironolactone treatment negatively impairs testicular morphology and functional (vas deferens) pathways. Varicocele formation seems to elicit an increase to 5-HT sensitivity in rat vas deferens, and this process is prevented by spironolactone pretreatment.

Microsurgical subinguinal varicocelectomy in children, adolescents, and adults: surgical anatomy and anatomically justified technique.

Microsurgical varicocelectomy has become the gold standard in adults because of low recurrence and postoperative hydrocele rates; it is increasingly applied in children and adolescents. This review aims to provide the surgeon with the necessary surgical anatomy of the spermatic cord and with a step-by-step, anatomically justified description of technique, toward clearer comprehension and improved application. The anatomic compartments of the spermatic cord are delineated by the external and internal spermatic fasciae. Venous drainage of testis-epididymis is accomplished by the internal spermatic, deferential, and external spermatic (cremasteric) veins. All 3 anastomose at the caudal pole of testis, and then via gubernacular veins with the posterior scrotal veins. Another anastomosis exists between a cremasteric branch and anterior scrotal veins, which gives the external pudendal vein. Subinguinal approach offers access to varicose spermatic veins and collaterals. Use of surgical microscope offers identification of small veins, preservation of arteries, lymphatics, and nerves, and appreciation of spermatic cord fasciae, which permits the development of two surgical planes. In the surgical plane of internal spermatic vessels, internal spermatic veins are ligated, whereas the testicular artery and innervation, as well as lymphatics, are preserved. In the plane of cremasteric vessels and vas, cremasteric veins are ligated, whereas the cremasteric artery, vas deferens and its vasculature, lymphatics, and the genital branch of genitofemoral nerve are preserved. Delivery of the testis to ligate gubernacular veins is at the discretion of the surgeon. Finally, venous return is effected by deferential and scrotal veins, or, when gubernacular veins are ligated, by deferential veins only.

Arterial supply of human and bovine testes: a topographic and morphometric comparison study.

The aim of the study was to compare the arteries supplying human and bovine masculine gonads. The study was made on two extremely different types of location of the mediastinum testis. The study was made on 100 (50 human and 50 bovine) corrosive casts of the testicular, cremasteric, and deference duct arteries. The differences between the species included different courses of the testicular artery inside the spermatic duct, the relative size of the three arterial diameters, and the morphology of the anastomoses of the arteries. In human testicular arteries, the course inside the spermatic course was more variable than in that of bulls. The artery was straighter and in 80% of the cases did not form the loops which were present in 100% of the bovine specimens. The bovine testicular artery was significantly wider in relation to the cremasteric and deferens duct arteries than the human one. This finding suggests that collateral blood flow to the testis was less effective in bulls than in men. The human testicular artery directly connected the other two with its terminal branches. The bovine testicular artery connected with the cremasteric and deferens duct arteries indirectly by means of its deferens duct branch.

Immunolocalization of aquaporin-1, -5, and -7 in the avian testis and vas deferens.

Thirteen mammalian aquaporin (AQP) isoforms have been identified, and they have a unique tissue-specific pattern of expression. AQPs have been found in the reproductive system of both male and female humans, rats, and mice. However, tissue expression and cellular and subcellular localization of AQPs have been poorly investigated in the male reproductive system of birds. The localization of AQP subtypes (AQP1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, and 11) in the goose testis and vas deferens has been studied through immunohistochemistry and immunobloting. Interestingly, the testicular and deferential tissues were positive for AQP1, -5, and -7 but not the others. AQP1 immunoreactivity was detected in the capillary endothelial cells of testis and vas deferens. AQP5 was localized in the interstitial tissue of the testis, including Leydig cells, as well as in the basal cells of vas deferens. Double-labeling confocal microscopy revealed coexpression of AQP5 with capillary AQP1 in the testis. AQP7 was expressed in elongated spermatid and spermatozoa tails in the testis, as well as spermatozoa tails in the vas deferens. These results suggest that several subtypes of AQPs are involved in the regulation of water homeostasis in the goose male reproductive system.

Human testicular arterial supply: gross anatomy, corrosion cast, and radiologic study.

OBJECTIVE: To study human testicular arterial supply. DESIGN: Prospective. SETTING: Academic setting. PATIENT(S): Forty fresh male cadavers. INTERVENTION(S): Gross anatomy of 20 cadavers, corrosion casting of 10, and radiography of 10. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): Testicular vascular supply, course, branching, and anastomosis. RESULT(S): The testicular artery descends bilaterally in a straight course (85%) and in a convoluted course (15%). There were three sites of terminations: along the upper pole of the mediastinum testis (78.8%), giving terminal branches (16.2%) or descends without division (5%). Four patterns of termination were found, but in the majority (69.7%) it terminates as upper and lower polar branches. The cremasteric artery arises from the inferior epigastric artery and terminates close to the lower end of the testis, anastomosing with the lower polar branch of the testicular artery. The artery of the vas arises from the inferior vesical artery, terminates by several capsular branches close to the mediastinum testis, anastomosing with branches of the testicular artery along the mediastinum testis. CONCLUSION(S): The testis gets its arterial supply mainly from the testicular artery supplemented with the cremastric artery and the artery of the vas. The testis has rich vascular areas in the upper polar, mediastinum testis, and posterolateral segments.

Initial experience with robot-assisted varicocelectomy.

AIM: To determine if robot-assisted varicocelectomy can be safely and effectively performed when compared to microscopic inguinal varicocelectomy. METHODS: Eight patients aged 29.1+/-12.5 years underwent microscopic subinguinal varicocelectomies: seven patients with left-sided repair, and one patient with bilateral repair. Eight patients aged 22.0+/-8.0 years underwent robot-assisted varicocelectomies: seven patients with left-sided repair and one patient with bilateral repair. RESULTS: The average operative time for microscopic inguinal varicocelectomy was 73.9+/-12.2 min, whereas the robot-assisted technique took 71.1+/-21.1 min. There were no difficulties in identifying and isolating vessels and the vas deferens with robot-assisted subinguinal varicocelectomy. Hand tremor was eliminated using the robotic procedure. Patients who underwent either microscopic or robot-assisted varicocelectomies were able to resume daily activities on the day of surgery and full activities within 2 weeks. There were no complications or recurrences of varicocele. CONCLUSION: From our experience, compared to microscopic surgery, robot-assisted varicocelectomy can be safely and effectively performed, with the added benefit of eliminating hand tremor.

Anatomy and microanatomy of the venous system of scrotal organs and spermatic cord.

Three structural and hemodynamic variants of venous angioarchitectonics of the epididymis were detected: direct testicular outflow (direct outflow into veins of the plexus pampiniformis), indirect testicular outflow (outflow into veins of the plexus pampiniformis with involvement of the communicant veins), and mixed outflow (combination of indirect testicular outflow with the outflow into vas deference veins). Anastomosis of caudal veins of the epididymis and the initial compartment of veins of the vas deference forming the "testicular venous arch" plays an important role in collateral venous blood-flow system; the arch anastomosing with the source of cremasteric vein forms a three-system anastomosis, the "testicular venous plexus" at the site of the epididymis tail transition into the vas deference.

Macroscopic features of the arterial supply to the reproductive system of the male ostrich (Struthio camelus).

The macroscopic features of the arterial supply to the reproductive system of the male ostrich was studied in 16 pre-pubertal and eight sexually mature and active birds. The left and right cranial renal arteries arise from the aorta, between the cranial divisions of the kidneys. These vessels supply the cranial divisions of the kidneys, the testes, the epididymides and the cranial segments of the ducti deferentia. Accessory testicular arteries which arise directly from the aorta are present in 45.8% of the specimens. They supply the testes and cranial parts of the ducti deferentia. They are variable in number and origin, and four variants are identified. A cranial ureterodeferential branch originates from the cranial renal artery, supplies the cranial portion of the ductus deferens and ureter, and runs caudally to anastomose with the middle renal artery. The sciatic artery arises laterally from the aorta, just caudal to the acetabulum, and gives rise, ventrally, to a common trunk, the common renal artery, which divides into the middle and caudal renal arteries. The middle renal artery gives rise to the middle ureterodeferential branch which supplies the middle part of the ductus deferens and ureter. A few centimetres caudal to the kidney, the aorta terminates in three branches, namely, the left and right internal iliac arteries and the median caudal artery. The internal iliac artery divides into the lateral caudal artery and the pudendal artery; the latter gives off caudal ureterodeferential branches that supply the caudal segments of the ductus deferens and ureter. In addition, the pudendal artery gives off vessels that supply the cloaca, some of which continue to the base of the phallus, where they form an arterial network. In conclusion, the pattern of the blood supply to the reproductive organs of the male ostrich is, in general, similar to that of the domestic fowl and pigeon, although there are a few highlighted distinctive features.

Vascular anatomy of normal and undescended testes: surgical assessment of anastomotic channels between testicular and deferential arteries.

OBJECTIVES: To demonstrate the vascular anatomy of the normal and undescended testes, emphasizing the surgical importance of the anastomotic channels between the testicular and deferential arteries in the undescended testis. METHODS: This study was performed on four normal testes obtained from adult cadavers and the undescended testes taken from men undergoing unilateral orchiectomy. To show the arteries and their connections, we used the injection-corrosion casting technique. RESULTS: The normal and undescended testes measured 36.3 +/- 9.2 mm x 21.2 +/- 4.3 mm x 14.3 +/- 5.4 mm and 19 x 16 x 9 mm, respectively. The testis and epididymis had an unusual shape in the undescended testes. The undescended testes were round, with a semilunar epididymis that was over the testis. All the testes, including the undescended testes, had testicular, deferential, and cremasteric arteries. The testicular, deferential, and cremasteric arterial diameter was 1.7 +/- 0.4, 1.1 +/- 0.3, and 0.5 +/- 0.3 mm in the normal testes and 1.5, 0.7, and 0.6 mm in the undescended testes, respectively. Communication among the three arteries was illustrated consistently by retrograde filling of the two noninjected arteries. Clearly visible anastomotic channels were present between the testicular and deferential arteries in the normal and undescended testes. CONCLUSIONS: We suggest that the original Fowler and Stephans concept (high ligation of the testicular artery) is valid to preserve vascularity to the testis when vascular transection orchiopexy is performed, although the number of our specimens was not enough to prove this definitively.

A local pathway for increased testosterone supply from the testis to the epididymis, vas deferens and accessory genital glands of the rat.

Radiolabeled testosterone (3H-T) was infused into the testes or left and right mesofuniculus (106 dpm) or injected into a testes (2 x 10(6) dpm). The 3H-T concentration was estimated 15 or 10 min after 3H-T infusion or injection, respectively, in the tissue samples collected from the prostate, seminal vesicles, caput and cauda epididymides, vasa deferentia and the mesofuniculi. The abdominal aorta and posterior vena cava were cannulated, and the posterior part of the body perfused with blood (at blood pressure 70-140 or 260-300 mm Hg in abdominal aorta) was used to study 3H-T transfer from the testes to venous blood and other male genital organs. The concentration of 3H-T found in the accessory genital glands, epididymes and vasa deferentia was affected by blood pressure in the abdominal aorta. The reduced blood pressure and partial blocking of blood supply to the genital organs (after ligation of both testicular arteries or the terminal part of the abdominal aorta) increased the concentration of 3H-T in accessory genital glands, vasa deferentia and epididymes. The removal of the mesofuniculi and vasa deferentia with their mesoducti reduced 3H-T concentration in the prostate, seminal vesicles and cauda epididymides. Both arterial trunks, testicular arteries and common iliac arteries, were shown to be connected by anastomoses in target organs so effectively, that supplying the male genital organs with blood by only one of them assures the transfer of testosterone from the testes to the epididymes, vasa deferentia, mesofuniculi as well as prostate and seminal vesicles. It was concluded that lymphatic vessels of the mesofunicules and of the spermatic cords as well as venous and arterial vasculature of the mesofunicules create a recently unknown pathway for the increase of testosterone supply from the testes to the epididymes, vasa deferentia and accessory genital glands of rats.

The presence of vasal vessels in men with congenital bilateral absence of the vas deferens.

PURPOSE: We characterized spermatic cord microanatomy in men with congenital bilateral absence of the vas deferens (CBAVD) presenting for varicocelectomy. We discuss the implications of these findings for varicocele repair. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Between 1997 and 2003, 8 men with CBAVD underwent a total of 11 microsurgical subinguinal varicocelectomies at microsurgical epididymal sperm aspiration and cryopreservation. All 8 men had palpable grades II to III varicoceles and in 6 varicoceles were repaired due to painful symptomatology, while 2 had testicular hypotrophy with an abnormal hormonal profile. Three men had bilateral varicoceles repaired, while 5 underwent unilateral varicocelectomy. All patients provided a thorough history and underwent physical examination, hormonal evaluation, semen analysis, genetic testing and renal ultrasonography. RESULTS: Intraoperative microsurgical dissection confirmed dilated internal and external spermatic veins, and absence of the vas deferens in all 11 spermatic cords. Characteristic tortuous vasal vessels of normal caliber were clearly identified in all 11 (100%) of these spermatic cords between the internal and external spermatic fasciae in the location where the vas deferens is usually found. CONCLUSIONS: Despite the absence of the vas deferens normal sized, orthotopically located vasal vessels were present in 100% of the spermatic cords examined. Furthermore, the caliber of the vasal veins was sufficient to provide adequate venous return from the testis following ligation of the internal and external spermatic veins. In patients with CBAVD presenting for varicocele repair standard microsurgical varicocelectomy with ligation of all internal and external spermatic veins can be performed without the risk of testicular congestion secondary to inadequate venous drainage.

Studies on sperm storage in the vas deferens of the spinifex hopping mouse (Notomys alexis).

The cauda epididymidis, with its relatively cool temperature (32-35 degrees C), is considered to be the main site of sperm storage in male mammals. However, in the adult male spinifex hopping mouse, Notomys alexis, similar numbers of spermatozoa are found in the vas deferens to those in the cauda epididymidis. The present study shows that, unlike in the laboratory mouse in which spermatozoa of the vas deferens are found mainly in the epididymal region of the duct, spermatozoa in the hopping mouse are localized mainly to the middle and urethral regions of the vas deferens which lies in the inguinal and lower abdominal region of the body cavity. After ligation of the vas deferens close to its connection with the epididymis, many spermatozoa in the vas deferens retain the potential for motility for up to 2 weeks, indicating that the viability of spermatozoa is not compromised by being restricted to core body temperature. This urethral region of the vas deferens, in which spermatozoa reside, has a highly divergent structural organization compared with that of common laboratory rodents in which there is an expanded lumen with a network of epithelial folds. Ultrastructural observations of the cells lining the duct indicate that there are not any marked differences in morphology compared with the cells lining the duct in common laboratory murids, but the infoldings of the vas deferens of the hopping mouse are highly vascular which might facilitate supply of oxygen and nutrients to the spermatozoa residing in the lumen.

Do experimentally induced ipsilateral testicular torsion, vas deferens obstruction, intra-abdominal testis or venous obstruction damage the contralateral testis through a common mechanism?

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate if various conditions affecting the ipsilateral testis which also damage the contralateral testis share a common pathway for their effects. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The study comprised five groups of 10 adult rats which underwent surgery to produce (on their left sides); group 1, a sham operation (control); group 2, testicular torsion; group 3, vas deferens obstruction; group 4, an intra-abdominal testis; and group 5, venous obstruction. The ipsilateral and contralateral testes were harvested 4 weeks after surgery. The relative proportions of haploid cells, the mean seminiferous tubular diameter (MSTD), mean testicular biopsy scores (MTBS), and lactate and hypoxanthine levels were determined and compared. RESULTS: The proportions of haploid cells in the ipsilateral and the contralateral testes of groups 2-5 were significantly lower than those of the corresponding testes of the control group. The MSTD and MTBS of the ipsilateral testes in groups 2-5 were also significantly lower than the ipsilateral testes of controls and the contralateral testes within the same groups. While the MSTD and MTBS of the contralateral testes of groups 1 and 5 were not significantly different, those of the contralateral testes of groups 2-4 were significantly less than that of group 1. The lactic acid and hypoxanthine levels of the ipsilateral and contralateral testes were significantly increased in groups 2 and 3. While only the hypoxanthine level of group 5 increased significantly, both variables were not significantly different between the ipsilateral testes of groups 1 and 4. CONCLUSIONS: These four treatments damaged both the ipsilateral and contralateral testes. As the lactic acid and hypoxanthine levels within the contralateral testis were greater than in the controls, testicular torsion and vas deferens obstruction seem to share a common pathway (which may be a reflex decrease in contralateral testicular blood flow) for their effects on the contralateral testis.

Spontaneous occurrence of vasculitis-like lesions in male reproductive tissues in mice: a histological study.

Vasculitis involving testes, epididymides, and vasa deferentia is considered to be a rare disease but has often been reported in man. In the present study, reproductive tissues of young and aged mice were examined to determine whether spontaneous vasculitis occurs in them. Testes, ductuli efferentes, epididymides, and vasa deferentia were obtained from young and aged BALB/c mice together with some nonreproductive organs for histological observation at the light microscopic level. The examination revealed that vasculitis-like lesions comparable to those in man were significantly present in the epididymides and vasa deferentia of aged but not young mice. However, no significant lesions were found in the testes and ductuli efferentes. Furthermore, other organs, such as salivary glands, thyroid glands, livers, pancreases, and kidneys, were also negative for the lesions. These results indicate that the epididymis and vas deferens are spontaneously apt to be affected by vasculitis-like lesions with advancing age, but that the lesions are not due to a systemic vasculitis disease.