The in vivo developmental toxicity of diethylstilbestrol (DES) in rat evaluated by an alternative testing strategy.

In the present study, we evaluated an alternative testing strategy to quantitatively predict the in vivo developmental toxicity of the synthetic hormone diethylstilbestrol (DES). To this end, a physiologically based kinetic (PBK) model was defined that was subsequently used to translate concentration-response data for the in vitro developmental toxicity of DES, obtained in the ES-D3 cell differentiation assay, into predicted in vivo dose-response data for developmental toxicity. The previous studies showed that the PBK model-facilitated reverse dosimetry approach is a useful approach to quantitatively predict the developmental toxicity of several developmental toxins. The results obtained in the present study show that the PBK model adequately predicted DES blood concentrations in rats. Further studies revealed that DES tested positive in the ES-D3 differentiation assay and that DES-induced inhibition of the ES-D3 cell differentiation could be counteracted by the estrogen receptor alpha (ERα) antagonist fulvestrant, indicating that the in vitro ES-D3 cell differentiation assay was able to mimic the role of ERα reported in the mode of action underlying the developmental toxicity of DES in vivo. In spite of this, combining these in vitro data with the PBK model did not adequately predict the in vivo developmental toxicity of DES in a quantitative way. It is concluded that although the EST qualifies DES as a developmental toxin and detects the role of ERα in this process, the ES-D3 cell differentiation assay of the EST apparently does not adequately capture the processes underlying DES-induced developmental toxicity in vivo.

Histone deacetylase inhibitors suppress transdifferentiation of gonadotrophs to prolactin cells and proliferation of prolactin cells induced by diethylstilbestrol in male mouse pituitary.

Diethylstilbestrol (DES), an estrogen agonist, increases prolactin (PRL) cells through transdifferentiation of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) cells to PRL cells as well as proliferation of PRL cells in adult male mouse pituitary. Since hyperacetylation of histone H3 is implicated in the regulation of activation of various genes, we examined the effect of DES on the state of histone H3 acetylation. DES significantly reduced the immunohistochemical signal for acetylated histone H3 at lysine 9 (H3K9ac) in PRL, LH and FSH cells, but not for H3K18ac or H3K23ac. DES-treated mice were injected intraperitoneally with HDAC inhibitors (HDACi), sodium phenylbutyrate (NaPB) or valproic acid (VPA), to mimic the acetylation level of histone H3. As expected, HDACi treatment restored the level of H3K9ac expression in these cells, and also inhibited DES-induced increase in PRL cells. Furthermore, NaPB and VPA also abrogated the effects of DES on the population density of both LH and FSH cells. Similarly, the numbers of proliferating and apoptotic cells in the pituitary in NaPB- or VPA-treated mice were comparable to those of the control mice. Considered together, these results indicated that the acetylation level of histone H3 plays an important role in DES-induced transdifferentiation of LH to PRL cells as well as proliferation of PRL cells.

Establishment of a rat model for uterine leiomyomas based on Western and traditional Chinese medicine theories.

Uterine leiomyomas (ULs) are benign monoclonal tumors that arise from the underlying myometrial tissue in the uterus. Effective therapies are still lacking because of poor understanding of the pathophysiology and epidemiology. Hence, it is urgent to establish efficient animal models to screen novel anti-UL therapies. In this study, for the first time, traditional Chinese medicine and Western medicine were combined to establish an animal model of ULs in rats. In order to evaluate the function and value of the novel model, it was compared with other models. The long-term and short-term rat models for ULs were established using progesterone and diethylstilbestrol. Rats in Qi stagnation and blood stasis group were injected with epinephrine hydrochloride and received chronic unpredictable stress for two weeks. Rats in combining disease with syndrome group (CDWSG) received not only epinephrine hydrochloride injection and chronic unpredictable stress but also progesterone and diethylstilbestrol treatment. We analyzed differences in organ coefficient, uterus size, uterine pathology, concentrations of progesterone, estradiol, progesterone receptor, estrogen receptor, expression of desmin, α-smooth muscle actin, and vimentin among the five groups. The animal model of ULs was successfully constructed by loading the rats with estrogen and progesterone. The rat model of CDWSG was more stable than other groups and the method was the most efficient.

In utero exposure to both high- and low-dose diethylstilbestrol disrupts mouse genital tubercle development.

Exposure to estrogenic endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) during in utero development has been linked to the increasing incidence of disorders of sexual development. Hypospadias, the ectopic placement of the urethra on the ventral aspect of the penis, is one of the most common DSDs affecting men, and can also affect women by resulting in the misplacement of the urethra. This study aimed to comprehensively assess the resulting hypospadias phenotypes in male and female mice exposed in utero from embryonic day 9.5 to 19.5 to the potent estrogenic endocrine disruptor, diethylstilbestrol, at a high, clinically relevant dose, and a low, previously untested dose, administered via water. The anogenital distance of male pups was significantly reduced and hypospadias was observed in males at a high frequency. Females exhibited hypospadias and urethral-vaginal fistula. These results demonstrate the ability of an estrogen receptor agonist to disrupt sexual development in both male and female mice, even at a low dose, administered via drinking water.

Establishment of a rat model for uterine leiomyomas based on Western and traditional Chinese medicine theories

Uterine leiomyomas (ULs) are benign monoclonal tumors that arise from the underlying myometrial tissue in the uterus. Effective therapies are still lacking because of poor understanding of the pathophysiology and epidemiology. Hence, it is urgent to establish efficient animal models to screen novel anti-UL therapies. In this study, for the first time, traditional Chinese medicine and Western medicine were combined to establish an animal model of ULs in rats. In order to evaluate the function and value of the novel model, it was compared with other models. The long-term and short-term rat models for ULs were established using progesterone and diethylstilbestrol. Rats in Qi stagnation and blood stasis group were injected with epinephrine hydrochloride and received chronic unpredictable stress for two weeks. Rats in combining disease with syndrome group (CDWSG) received not only epinephrine hydrochloride injection and chronic unpredictable stress but also progesterone and diethylstilbestrol treatment. We analyzed differences in organ coefficient, uterus size, uterine pathology, concentrations of progesterone, estradiol, progesterone receptor, estrogen receptor, expression of desmin, α-smooth muscle actin, and vimentin among the five groups. The animal model of ULs was successfully constructed by loading the rats with estrogen and progesterone. The rat model of CDWSG was more stable than other groups and the method was the most efficient.

Diethylstilbestrol administration inhibits theca cell androgen and granulosa cell estrogen production in immature rat ovary.

Diethylstilbestrol (DES), a strong estrogenic compound, is well-known to affect the reproductive system. In this study, we investigated the effects of DES administration on gonadotropin levels and ovarian steroidogenesis in prepubertal rats. DES treatment acutely reduced serum LH levels, followed by a reduction in the expression of various steroidogenesis-related genes in theca cells. Serum FSH levels were almost unaffected by DES-treatment, even though Cyp19a1 expression was markedly reduced. Serum progesterone, testosterone and estradiol levels were also declined at this time. LH levels recovered from 12 h after DES-treatment and gradually increased until 96 h with a reduction of ERα expression observed in the pituitary. Steroidogenesis-related genes were also up-regulated during this time, except for Cyp17a1 and Cyp19a1. Consistent with observed gene expression pattern, serum testosterone and estradiol concentrations were maintained at lower levels, even though progesterone levels recovered. DES-treatment induced the inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in granulosa cells, and a nitric oxide generator markedly repressed Cyp19a1 expression in cultured granulosa cells. These results indicate that DES inhibits thecal androgen production via suppression of pituitary LH secretion and ovarian Cyp17a1 expression. In addition, DES represses Cyp19a1 expression by inducing iNOS gene expression for continuous inhibition of estrogen production in granulosa cells.

Clear Cell Carcinoma of the Uterine Cervix: A Clinical and Pathological Analysis of 47 Patients Without Intrauterine Diethylstilbestrol Exposure.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to summarize the clinical and pathological characteristics and to conduct prognosis analysis of patients who were diagnosed with clear cell carcinoma of the uterine cervix (CCCUC) and without a history of exposure to diethylstilbestrol. METHODS: We performed a retrospective review of all the patients with CCCUC who were diagnosed and treated at Zhejiang Cancer Hospital between 1998 and 2014. Charts were reviewed for clinical and pathological characteristics, and prognosis analysis was conducted. RESULTS: A total of 47 patients were included. Median age was 52 years. No patient had a history of exposure to diethylstilbestrol. The International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics stage distribution was 55.3% (n = 26) stage I, 40.4% (n = 19) stage II, 2.1% (n = 1) stage III, and 2.1% (n = 1) stage IV. Forty-two patients (89.4%) underwent radical hysterectomy and pelvic lymphadenectomy. Pathological examination revealed deep cervical stromal invasion (greater than two thirds) in 20 patients (48.4%), pelvic lymph node (PLN) metastasis in 10 patients (23.8%), lymphovascular space involvement in 9 patients (21.4%), and ovarian metastasis in 1 patient (2.4%). Advanced tumor stage (IIB-IV), larger tumor size (>4 cm), and PLN metastasis had negative effects on progression-free survival (PFS) and overall survival (OS) (P < 0.05). Adjuvant radiation therapy alone or concurrent chemoradiation therapy after radical surgery did not affect PFS or OS in patients with risk factors (P > 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics stage, tumor size, and PLN status were prognostic factors for both PFS and OS in patients with CCCUC. The long-term effects of adjuvant radiation therapy or concurrent chemoradiation therapy may be limited for CCCUC patients with risk factors. Future larger case series or clinical trials are required to confirm these findings.

Perinatal Exposure to Bisphenol A or Diethylstilbestrol Increases the Susceptibility to Develop Mammary Gland Lesions After Estrogen Replacement Therapy in Middle-Aged Rats.

The development of the mammary gland is a hormone-regulated event. Several factors can dysregulate its growth and make the gland more susceptible to cellular transformation. Among these factors, perinatal exposure to xenoestrogens and hormone replacement therapy has been associated with increased risk of developing breast cancer. Here, we assessed the effects induced by estrogen replacement therapy (ERT) in ovariectomized (OVX) middle-aged rats and whether perinatal exposure to diethylstilbestrol (DES) or bisphenol A (BPA) modified these effects in the mammary gland. Pregnant rats were orally exposed to vehicle, 5 µg DES/kg/day, or 0.5 or 50 µg BPA/kg/day from gestational day 9 until weaning. Then, 12-month-old offspring were OVX and treated with 17ß-estradiol for 3 months. Morphological changes and the percentage of epithelial cells that proliferated or expressed estrogen receptor alpha (ESR1) and progesterone receptor (PR) were analyzed in mammary gland samples of 15-month-old animals. ERT induced lobuloalveolar hyperplasia and ductal cysts in the mammary gland of middle-aged rats, associated with a higher proliferation index of epithelial cells. Perinatal exposure to DES followed by ERT increased the number of cysts and induced the formation of fibroadenoma and ductal carcinoma in situ, without modifying the expression of ESR1 or PR. Also, after 3 months of ERT, BPA-exposed rats had a higher incidence of ductal hyperplasia and atypical lobular hyperplasia than animals under ERT alone. In conclusion, perinatal exposure to xenoestrogens increases the susceptibility of the mammary gland to develop cysts and hyperplastic lesions when confronted with ERT later in life.

Concurrent Androgen and Estrogen Ablation and Inhibition of Steroid Biosynthetic Enzyme Treatment for Castration-resistant Prostate Cancer.

BACKGROUND/AIM: About 80 to 90% of prostate cancer (PCa) is androgen-dependent at diagnosis, but patients ultimately develop castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC), which is usually not amenable to androgen deprivation (ablation) therapy (ADT). Patients with CRPC usually succumb to death in less than 5 years and there is no cure. Here, we investigated reasons for ADT failure. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Biopsy specimens from untreated and diethylstilbestrol (DES)-treated patients were assessed for localization of antibody IgGs against androgen (AR) and estrogen (ER) receptors. RESULTS: In untreated and DES-treated sections, methylene blue stained basic proteins in dark basal (undifferentiated) PCa cells, whereas light basal cells were not stained. AR localized to light basal cells which showed widespread degeneration in sections from DES-treated patients, indicating their dependence on androgen. In contrast, dark basal cells did not show widespread degeneration in DES-treated patients; ER was usually localized in dark cells. The number of dark cells progressively increased in DES-treated patients indicating their androgen-independence. The localization of AR and ER in some light and dark basal cells indicated that the supply of androgen/estrogen was not inhibited during ADT. Dark basal cells had emerged prior to treatment and proliferated during DES treatment, that also indicated their androgen-independence. CONCLUSION: PCa has at least two populations of cells: androgen-dependent light basal and estrogen-dependent dark basal cells. ADT did not destroy estrogen-dependent cells which may have given rise to CRPC tumors. Therefore, ADT is an incomplete treatment. For a more complete treatment of PCa, we recommend concurrent androgen and estrogen ablation, together with the inhibition of selected steroid biosynthetic enzymes.

A comparison of methods to adjust for continuous covariates in the analysis of randomised trials.

BACKGROUND: Although covariate adjustment in the analysis of randomised trials can be beneficial, adjustment for continuous covariates is complicated by the fact that the association between covariate and outcome must be specified. Misspecification of this association can lead to reduced power, and potentially incorrect conclusions regarding treatment efficacy. METHODS: We compared several methods of adjustment to determine which is best when the association between covariate and outcome is unknown. We assessed (a) dichotomisation or categorisation; (b) assuming a linear association with outcome; (c) using fractional polynomials with one (FP1) or two (FP2) polynomial terms; and (d) using restricted cubic splines with 3 or 5 knots. We evaluated each method using simulation and through a re-analysis of trial datasets. RESULTS: Methods which kept covariates as continuous typically had higher power than methods which used categorisation. Dichotomisation, categorisation, and assuming a linear association all led to large reductions in power when the true association was non-linear. FP2 models and restricted cubic splines with 3 or 5 knots performed best overall. CONCLUSIONS: For the analysis of randomised trials we recommend (1) adjusting for continuous covariates even if their association with outcome is unknown; (2) keeping covariates as continuous; and (3) using fractional polynomials with two polynomial terms or restricted cubic splines with 3 to 5 knots when a linear association is in doubt.

Neonatal exposure to low doses of endosulfan induces implantation failure and disrupts uterine functional differentiation at the pre-implantation period in rats.

We investigated whether neonatal exposure to low doses of endosulfan affects fertility and uterine functional differentiation at pre-implantation in rats. Newborn female rats received the vehicle, 0.2 µg/kg/d of diethylstilbestrol (DES), 6 µg/kg/d of endosulfan (Endo6) or 600 µg/kg/d of endosulfan (Endo600) on postnatal days (PND) 1, 3, 5, and 7. On PND90, the rats were mated to evaluate their reproductive performance on gestational day (GD) 19 and their ovarian steroid serum levels, endometrial proliferation and implantation-associated proteins on GD5. DES and endosulfan decreased the pregnancy rate and the number of implantation sites. On GD5, DES and endosulfan did not change the serum levels of 17ß-estradiol (E2) and progesterone (P); the endometrial proliferation decreased, which was associated with silencing of Hoxa10 in the Endo600-treated rats. Both doses of endosulfan increased the progesterone receptor (PR) expression, whereas the higher dose led additionally to an increase in estrogen receptor alpha (ERα). In the Endo600-treated rats, the down-regulation of Hoxa10 was associated with a deregulation of the steroid receptor coregulators. Alterations in endometrial proliferation and the endocrine pathway of Hoxa10/steroid receptors/coregulators might be the mechanism of endosulfan-induced implantation failure.

Pharmacologic sex hormones in pregnancy in relation to offspring obesity.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the association between in utero exposure to either diethylstilbestrol (DES) or an oral contraceptive in pregnancy and offspring obesity. METHODS: Using data from the Collaborative Perinatal Project (1959-1974), a multicenter prospective study of pregnant women and their offspring, we examined overweight or obesity among 34,419 children with height and weight data at age 7 years. Generalized linear models to estimate the adjusted odds ratio (aOR) for overweight or obesity (≥85th percentile) or obesity (≥95th percentile) in the offspring according to exposure during different months of pregnancy were used. RESULTS: Oral contraceptive use during pregnancy was positively associated with offspring overweight or obesity and obesity. The magnitude of association was strongest in the first 2 months of pregnancy for obesity (aOR 2.0, 95% CI: 1.1, 3.7). DES use was also associated with offspring overweight or obesity and obesity, with the association being strongest for exposure beginning between months 3 and 5 (e.g., for exposure beginning in months 3-4, the aOR for obesity was 2.8, 95% CI: 1.3, 6.3). CONCLUSIONS: Pharmacologic sex hormone use in pregnancy may be associated with childhood obesity. Whether contemporary, lower dose oral contraceptive formulations are similarly associated with increased risk of childhood obesity is unclear.

[Diethylstilbestrol story]. / Histoire du diéthylstilbestrol.

This story, that has been going on for 75 years begins with an infatuation for a "miraculous" drug supposed to, according to a theory and without scientific proof of effectiveness, reduce the pregnancy complications, especially the number of miscarriages. The next steps are painful with the discovery during the seventies, for the in utero exposed daughters, of particular cancers (clear cells adenocarcinoma) of the uterus cervix or the vagina, then during the eighties infertility and pregnancy accidents. This story is exemplary because it involves the different society actors whose roles will be analysed: health professionals, health authorities, patients associations, media and pharmaceutical companies. We will propose lessons for the future.

Pharmacokinetics and safety profiles of novel diethylstilbestrol orally dissolving film in comparison with diethylstilbestrol capsules in healthy Chinese male subjects.

OBJECTIVE: We compared the pharmacokinetic (PK) profiles of diethylstilbestrol orally dissolving film (DES ODF) and DES-capsule as well as assessing the safety, local tolerability, taste, and disintegration time of DES ODF. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Twelve healthy male volunteers receiving a single administration of 2.0 mg of DES ODF or DES-capsule were included in the study. The tolerability, taste, and time to dissolution of DES ODF were assessed after dosing. Safety assessments included adverse events, hematology and biochemistry tests, urinalysis, vital signs, and electrocardiography. RESULTS: The PK parameters of DES ODF were all greater than those of DEScapsule. The Cmax values were 5.64 ± 1.1 and 3.4 ± 1.93 ng/mL for DES ODF and DES-capsule, respectively. Assessment of bioequivalence was based on the 90% CIs of the treatment ratios of the log-transformed Cmax, AUC0-t, and AUC0-∞ (DES ODF to DES-capsule), with the mean values being 1.93 (141 - 264), 1.24 (98 - 156), and 1.59 (121 - 207), respectively, indicating that DES ODF had a significantly high bioavailability. The mean DES ODF disintegration time was 14 ± 5 minutes. DES ODF was well tolerated and no serious adverse events or clinically relevant changes were observed. CONCLUSIONS: The DES ODF is well tolerated and better absorbed in comparison with DES-capsule.

Suppression of erythropoietin induction by diethylstilbestrol in rats.

Diethylstilbestrol is an estrogenic endocrine disrupter that has diverse health effects in humans. Bisphenol A is another estrogen-like chemical with possible similar effects to diethylstilbestrol, which has been increasingly used for industry to lead to globally widespread human exposure to it. Hematopoiesis is another of their possible targets, since estrogen suppresses erythropoietin induction to induce anemia. The aim of this study was to clarify the effects of diethylstilbestrol and bisphenol A on erythropoietin induction in rats. We observed the effects of one-shot subcutaneous injection of diethylstilbestrol or bisphenol A on hypoxia-, bleeding-, and cobalt-stimulated erythropoietin induction within 24 h and the hematological outcomes after repeated subcutaneous injection of diethylstilbestrol three times a week for 1 month in rats. Diethylstilbestrol at 10-1,000 µg/kg suppressed stimulus-elevated levels of plasma erythropoietin and its renal mRNA induction. In contrast, bisphenol A at 1,000 µg/kg did not suppress plasma erythropoietin elevated by any stimuli. Repeated injection of diethylstilbestrol at 1,000 µg/kg to rats for 1 month induced an anemic trend due to decelerated erythropoiesis through the insufficient production of erythropoietin, mimicking the effects of estradiol. In conclusion, diethylstilbestrol has a suppressive effect on erythropoietin induction, leading to deceleration of erythropoiesis and the development of anemia.

The effects of diethylstilbestrol administration on rat kidney. Ultrastructural study.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the histological and ultrastructural changes that can be induced by diethylstilbestrol (DES) on renal tissues using histological, immunohistochemical, and ultrastructural methods. METHODS: Thirty adult male Wistar rats were divided into 3 groups (10 rats each): Group 1 - control; Group 2 - received DES at a dose of 60 ug/kg/day, dissolved in 0.1 ml corn oil for 20 days; and Group 3 - received the same dose of DES for 50 days by oral gavage. The renal tissues were studied histologically, immunohistochemically (using an anti-BCL2-associated X protein [BAX protein] antibody), and ultrastructurally. This study was carried out at the Anatomy Department, Faculty of Medicine, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia between December 2011 and December 2012. RESULTS: The DES administration for 50 days caused noticeable degeneration, and alteration of the morphology of the renal tissues in the form of damaged renal tubules with loss of the brush border of the proximal convoluted tubules and increased cellularity of the glomeruli. In addition, there was a significant increase in BAX protein expression based on immunoreactivity, and in renal tubules, as well as glomerular cells. These changes were less obvious after 20 days of treatment. CONCLUSION: Non-steroidal, synthetic estrogens showed harmful effects on the renal tissues and altered their morphology with an increased number of apoptotic cells, and these changes were duration dependent.

Combined oestrogen and progesterone for preventing miscarriage.

BACKGROUND: Historically, oestrogen and progesterone were each commonly used to save threatened pregnancies. In the 1940s it was postulated that their combined use would be synergistic and thereby led to the rationale of combined therapy for women who risked miscarriage. OBJECTIVES: To determine the efficacy and safety of combined oestrogen and progesterone therapy to prevent miscarriage. SEARCH METHODS: We searched the Cochrane Pregnancy and Childbirth Group's Trials Register (23 June 2013) CENTRAL (OVID) (The Cochrane Library 2013, Issue 6 of 12), MEDLINE (OVID) (1946 to June Week 2 2013), OLDMEDLINE (1946 to 1965), Embase (1974 to Week 25 2013), Embase Classic (1947 to 1973), CINAHL (1994 to 23 June 2013) and reference lists of retrieved studies. SELECTION CRITERIA: We included randomised controlled trials that assessed the effectiveness of combined oestrogen and progesterone for preventing miscarriage. We included one stratified randomised trial and one quasi-randomised trials. Cluster-randomised trials were eligible for inclusion but none were identified. We excluded studies published only as abstracts.We included studies that compared oestrogen and progesterone versus placebo or no intervention. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Two review authors independently assessed trials for inclusion and assessed trial quality. Two review authors extracted data. Data were checked for accuracy. MAIN RESULTS: Two trials (281 pregnancies and 282 fetuses) met our inclusion criteria. However, the two trials had significant clinical and methodological heterogeneity such that a meta-analysis combining trial data was considered inappropriate.One trial (involving 161 pregnancies) was based on women with a history of diabetes. It showed no statistically significant difference between using combined oestrogen and progestogen and using placebo for all our proposed primary outcomes, namely, miscarriage (risk ratio (RR) 0.95, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.32 to 2.80), perinatal death (RR 0.94, 95% CI 0.53 to 1.69) and preterm birth (less than 34 weeks of gestation) (RR 0.91, 95% CI 0.80 to 1.04). In terms of this review's secondary outcomes, use of combined oestrogen and progestogen was associated with an increased risk of maternal cancer in the reproductive system (RR 6.65, 95% CI 1.56 to 28.29). However, for the outcome of cancer other than that of the reproductive system in mothers, there was no difference between groups. Similarly, there were no differences between the combined oestrogen and progestogen group versus placebo for other secondary outcomes reported: low birthweight of less than 2500 g, genital abnormalities in the offspring, abnormalities other than genital tract in the offspring, cancer in the reproductive system in the offspring, or cancer other than of the reproductive system in the offspring.The second study was based on pregnant women who had undergone in-vitro fertilisation (IVF). This study showed no difference in the rate of miscarriage between the combined oestrogen and progesterone group and the no treatment group (RR 0.66, 95% CI 0.23 to 1.85). The study did not report on this review's other primary outcomes (perinatal death or rates of preterm birth), nor on any of our proposed secondary outcomes. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: There is an insufficient evidence from randomised controlled trials to assess the use of combined oestrogen and progesterone for preventing miscarriages. We strongly recommend further research in this area.

Prenatal DES exposure in relation to breast size.

PURPOSE: Prenatal DES exposure has been associated with increased risk of breast cancer, but the mechanisms are unknown. Larger bra cup size has also been associated with increased breast cancer risk, although not consistently. We investigated the relation of prenatal DES exposure to mammary gland mass, as estimated by bra cup size. METHODS: In 2006, 3,222 DES-exposed and 1,463 unexposed women reported their bra cup size, band size (chest circumference), and weight at age 20. Prevalence ratios (PR) were calculated for DES exposure in relation to large bra cup size, with control for year of birth and study cohort. Primary analyses were carried out among women who reported a chest circumference of no more than 32 inches because their cup size would be less influenced by fat mass. RESULTS: Within this group, DES-exposed women had an estimated 45% increased prevalence (95% CI 0.97-2.18) of large cup size (C or greater) relative to unexposed women. The PR was further increased among women in this group who had a body mass index of < 21 at age 20: PR = 1.83 (95% CI 1.11-3.00). The PR for high-dose DES exposure relative to no exposure was 1.67, 95% CI 1.02-2.73, whereas there was no association of bra cup size with low-dose exposure. CONCLUSIONS: These results provide support for the hypothesis that in utero DES exposure may result in greater mammary gland mass. Taken together with previous research on bra size and breast cancer risk, these findings suggest a mechanism for a possible association of in utero DES exposure with increased risk of breast cancer.

Diethylstilboestrol exposure does not reduce testosterone production in human fetal testis xenografts.

In rodents, in utero exposure to exogenous estrogens including diethylstilboestrol (DES) results in major suppression of steroidogenesis in fetal testes. Whether similar effects occur in the human fetal testis is equivocal. Based on the results of the rodent studies, we hypothesised that exposure of human fetal testes to DES would result in a reduction in testosterone production. We show, using a xenograft approach, that testosterone production is not reduced in human fetal testis following DES exposure. Human fetal testes (15-19 weeks' gestation, n = 6) were xenografted into castrate male nude mice which were then treated for 35 days with vehicle or 100 µg/kg DES three times a week. For comparison, similar treatment was applied to pregnant rats from e13.5-e20.5 and effects on fetal testes evaluated at e21.5. Xenograft testosterone production was assessed by measuring host seminal vesicle (SV) weights as an indirect measure over the entire grafting period, and single measurement of serum testosterone at termination. Human fetal testis xenografts showed similar survival in DES and vehicle-exposed hosts. SV weight (44.3 v 26.6 mg, p = 0.01) was significantly increased in DES compared to vehicle-exposed hosts, respectively, indicating an overall increase in xenograft testosterone production over the grafting period, whilst serum testosterone at termination was unchanged. In contrast intra-testicular testosterone levels were reduced by 89%, in fetal rats exposed to DES. In rats, DES effects are mediated via Estrogen Receptor α (ESR1). We determined ESR1 protein and mRNA expression in human and rat fetal testis. ESR1 was expressed in rat, but not in human, fetal Leydig cells. We conclude that human fetal testis exposure to DES does not impair testosterone production as it does in rats, probably because ESR1 is not expressed in human fetal Leydig cells. This indicates that DES exposure is likely to pose minimal risk to masculinization of the human fetus.