Dietary Supplements: A Gateway to Doping?

Dietary supplements are widely used among athletes, but many may be unaware of the potential for unintentional doping, especially considering that supplements can often be contaminated with prohibited substances. The reason behind the widespread use of dietary supplements among athletes is often cited as being for the purposes of enhancing health or performance. However, many athletes turn to unreliable sources of information, and often lack knowledge of dietary supplement regulations. The aim of this narrative review is to explore the current research surrounding the psychological constructs (such as norms, attitudes, and beliefs) related to dietary supplement use among athletes that may lead to inadvertent doping. This review also covers possible programme structures that may be effective at preventing inadvertent doping.

The meta-cognitive role of thought morality in attitude change and behavioural intentions related to doping.

Prior research has examined the relationships between morality, attitudes, and intentions related to doping predominantly via correlational studies based on the theoretical frameworks provided by extensions to the theory of planned behaviour, and the social cognitive theory of moral thought and action. In contrast, the present study experimentally analysed a psychological process (i.e., self-validation) through which thought morality can influence attitudes and intentions. Two hundred and forty-two participants (122 males and 120 females) were randomly assigned to read a message either against or in favour of legalising several doping behaviours in sports, then listed their thoughts regarding that proposal. Next, they were randomly assigned to perceive their thoughts as either moral or immoral, then indicated the extent to which they considered their thoughts as valid. Finally, participants reported their attitudes and intentions regarding the legalisation proposal. As hypothesised, the anti-legalisation (vs. pro-legalisation) message produced more unfavourable thoughts and attitudes, as well as lower intentions to support the legalisation proposal and engage in banned behaviours if legalised in sport. Most importantly, the effects of message direction on attitudes and intentions were greater for participants in the moral (vs. immoral) thought condition. Furthermore, changes in attitudes were consistent with a self-validation process.

Effectiveness of the world anti-doping agency's e-learning programme for anti-doping education on knowledge of, explicit and implicit attitudes towards, and likelihood of doping among Chinese college athletes and non-athletes.

BACKGROUND: This study aimed to evaluate the effects of the World Anti-Doping Agency's e-learning programme for anti-doping education on knowledge of, explicit and implicit attitudes towards, and likelihood of doping among Chinese college athletes and non-athletes. METHOD: Thirty-two young adults (including 16 college athletes) were recruited to receive the Athlete Learning Program about Health and Anti-Doping (ALPHA) intervention (Zh-hans version). Another 32 young adults were recruited for no-treatment control purposes. Before and immediately after the intervention, the ALPHA test, performance enhancement attitude scale, doping likelihood scale, and brief implicit association test (BIAT) were performed. Cortical activity during the BIAT test was monitored using a functional near-infrared spectroscopy instrument. RESULTS: Significant intervention effects were observed for knowledge (p < 0.01, η2 = 0.21) and explicit attitude (p < 0.05, η2 = 0.12) but not for doping likelihood (p > 0.05; benefit situation: η2 = 0.04; cost situation: η2 = 0.02). Compared with the non-athletes, the college athletes reported lower doping likelihood scores in benefit situations (e.g., financial gain, p < 0.05, η2 = 0.10). Regarding the BIAT task, the experimental effect was successfully induced by different semantic associations between the concepts and the attitude (doping + like vs. doping + dislike). The mean reaction times (p < 0.01, η2 = 0.36) and error rate (p < 0.01, η2 = 0.34) in the doping-like block were higher than those in the doping-dislike block. Moreover, oxygenated haemoglobin (oxy-Hb) in response to BIAT interference in the temporoparietal junction-related channels was increased during the post-intervention test (p < 0.05, η2 varied from 0.09 to 0.16). CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest that the online anti-doping education programme is partially effective among Chinese college athletes and non-athletes. Furthermore, our findings reflect enhanced cognitive control after the education intervention to suppress a prepotent implicit attitude towards doping.

Cardiovascular effects of doping substances, commonly prescribed medications and ergogenic aids in relation to sports: a position statement of the sport cardiology and exercise nucleus of the European Association of Preventive Cardiology.

The use of substances and medications with potential cardiovascular effects among those practicing sports and physical activity has progressively increased in recent years. This is also connected to the promotion of physical activity and exercise as core aspects of a healthy lifestyle, which has led also to an increase in sport participation across all ages. In this context, three main users' categories can be identified, (i) professional and amateur athletes using substances to enhance their performance, (ii) people with chronic conditions, which include physical activity and sport in their therapeutic plan, in association with prescribed medications, and (iii) athletes and young individuals using supplements or ergogenic aids to integrate their diet or obtaining a cognitive enhancement effect. All the substances used for these purposes have been reported to have side effects, among whom the cardiovascular consequences are the most dangerous and could lead to cardiac events. The cardiovascular effect depends on the type of substance, the amount, the duration of use, and the individual response to the substances, considering the great variability in responses. This Position Paper reviews the recent literature and represents an update to the previously published Position Paper published in 2006. The objective is to inform physicians, athletes, coaches, and those participating in sport for a health enhancement purpose, about the adverse cardiovascular effects of doping substances, commonly prescribed medications and ergogenic aids, when associated with sport and exercise.

Education Interventions to Improve Knowledge, Beliefs, Intentions and Practices with Respect to Dietary Supplements and Doping Substances: A Narrative Review.

The misuse of dietary supplements and doping substances is commonly associated with toxicity, nutritional imbalances, and health and psychological consequences. This is alarming especially in light of the increasing prevalence of the use of dietary supplements and doping, particularly among young adults including athletes. There is evidence that education interventions can lead to improved knowledge, intentions, and practices. However, no review has summarized and evaluated the effectiveness of such interventions. The aim of this article is to review the characteristics, contents and effects of education interventions that were designed and implemented to improve knowledge, attitudes, beliefs and intentions with respect to the use of dietary supplements and doping agents in different populations. PubMed, Scopus, CINAHL, PsycInfo and Google Scholar were searched for English-language education interventions targeting dietary supplements and doping substances. A total of 20 articles were identified and have generally provided consistent findings. Most interventions reported a significant improvement in knowledge on dietary supplements and doping agents. Unfortunately, the heavy reliance on self-reported assessment tools limits the validity of these interventions, with almost all articles targeting athletes and adolescents.

Geographical heterogeneity of doping-related knowledge, beliefs and attitude among 533 Youth Olympics participants.

OBJECTIVES: Doping-related knowledge, beliefs and attitude influence adolescent athletes' susceptibility to prohibited performance-enhancing substances. They might be modified by different cultural backgrounds. This study's aim was to analyse the geographical heterogeneity of doping-related knowledge, beliefs and attitude among adolescent elite athletes. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. METHODS: A questionnaire was distributed to athletes participating in the Winter Youth Olympic Games 2020 in Switzerland. Main outcomes ('subjective and actual knowledge', 'beliefs' and 'attitude') were stratified for athletes' region of origin. Geographical heterogeneity was tested with a two-way analysis of variance, and two multiple regression analyses were conducted to assess independent associations of knowledge, age and athletes' geographical region with doping-related beliefs and attitude. RESULTS: 533 athletes (54% females, mean age: 16.0 ±â€¯1.0 years), completed the questionnaire (response rate: 33%). Actual knowledge was moderate-to-good (9.2 ±â€¯2.9 correct answers out of 13), and scores of attitude and beliefs showed favourable patterns. Considerable geographical heterogeneity was found for knowledge (p < 0.001), beliefs (p = 0.004) and attitude (p < 0.001). Higher subjective knowledge and actual knowledge were favourably associated with attitude (ß = -0.096, p = 0.049; ß = -0.316, p < 0.001) and beliefs (ß = 0.120, p = 0.016; ß = 0.212, p < 0.001), independent of age and geographical region. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates considerable geographical heterogeneity of doping-related knowledge, beliefs and attitude, which are three essential target factors of doping prevention in adolescent elite athletes. This evidence should encourage medical doctors and other professionals to change their educative anti-doping approach from teaching knowledge about negative consequences into investigating and forming a young athlete's mind-set.

High-level athletes' motivation for sport and susceptibility to doping: The mediating role of eating behaviours.

Both doping (e.g. Hodge, K., Hargreaves, E. A., Gerrard, D. F., & Lonsdale, C. (2013). Psychological mechanisms underlying doping attitudes in sport: Motivation and moral disengagement. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 35, 419-432.) and eating behaviours (e.g. Hagger, M. S., Chatzisarantis, N. L., & Harris, J. (2006). From psychological need satisfaction to intentional behaviour: Testing a motivational sequence in two behavioural contexts. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32, 131-148.) have been studied independently within the SDT framework, but no research has examined these variables concomitantly to better understand the relationships between motivation for sport and doping variables. We therefore examined the mediating role of eating behaviour in the relationship between SDT constructs for sport motivation and athletes' susceptibility to doping. Bootstrapped mediation analyses were performed for 171 male and female athletes with competitive experience in various sports. The analyses revealed that healthy eating behaviours significantly mediated the relationship between SDT motivational constructs and susceptibility to doping. The findings enrich our theoretical understanding of how the SDT approach to motivation for sport might provide insight into the susceptibility to doping; that is, through the potential mediating role of healthy eating behaviours. Finally, the potential central position of eating behaviours in the motivation-doping relationship opens up a potential swathe of novel research, with investigations into eating behaviours at the forefront of future research on the psychology of doping.

Values and clean sport.

The spirit of sport, which encompasses intrinsic values associated with sport participation, is core to the World Anti-Doping Agency's (WADA) strategy for doping prevention. The contribution of these values to clean sport has yet to be established. In this study, athletes rated the importance of spirit of sport values (WADA, 2015) and sport values (Lee et al., 2000, 2008) and indicated their clean sport likelihood in a hypothetical scenario. Clean sport likelihood was positively predicted by the five spirit of sport values (ethics/fair play/honesty, respect for rules/laws, dedication/commitment, teamwork, community/solidarity), two sport value domains (morality, competence), and 11 sport values (contract maintenance, being fair, conscientiousness, sportspersonship, show skills, health/fitness, caring/compassion, team cohesion, achievement, tolerance, obedience). Clean sport likelihood was best predicted by moral values.

An intervention to optimise coach-created motivational climates and reduce athlete willingness to dope (CoachMADE): a three-country cluster randomised controlled trial.

OBJECTIVES: Coach-centred antidoping education is scarce. We tested the efficacy of a motivationally informed antidoping intervention for coaches, with their athletes' willingness to dope as the primary outcome. METHODS: We delivered a cluster randomised controlled trial in Australia, the UK and Greece. This study was a parallel group, two-condition, superiority trial. Participants were 130 coaches and 919 athletes. Coaches in the intervention group attended two workshops and received supplementary information to support them in adopting a motivationally supportive communication style when discussing doping-related issues with their athletes. Coaches in the control condition attended a standard antidoping workshop that provided up-to-date information on antidoping issues yet excluded any motivation-related content. Assessments of willingness to dope (primary outcome) and other secondary outcomes were taken at baseline, postintervention (3 months) and at a 2-month follow up. RESULTS: Compared with athletes in the control group, athletes in the intervention group reported greater reductions in willingness to take prohibited substances (effect size g=0.17) and psychological need frustration (g=0.23) at postintervention, and greater increases in antidoping knowledge (g=0.27) at follow-up. Coaches in the intervention group reported at postintervention greater increases in efficacy to create an antidoping culture (g=0.40) and in perceived effectiveness of need supporting behaviours (g=0.45) to deal with doping-related situations. They also reported greater decreases in doping attitudes (g=0.24) and perceived effectiveness of need thwarting behaviours (g=0.35). CONCLUSIONS: Antidoping education programmes should consider incorporating principles of motivation, as these could be beneficial to coaches and their athletes. We offer suggestions to strengthen these programmes, as most of the effects we observed were not sustained at follow-up. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: This trial has been registered with the Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry (https://www.anzctr.org.au/Trial/Registration/TrialReview.aspx?id=371465&isReview=true).

A Moral Intervention Reduces Doping Likelihood in British and Greek Athletes: Evidence From a Cluster Randomized Control Trial.

OBJECTIVES: The authors aimed to develop a moral intervention and to determine whether it was more effective in preventing doping than an educational (i.e., knowledge-based) intervention; their primary outcome was doping likelihood, and the secondary outcomes were moral identity, moral disengagement, moral atmosphere, and anticipated guilt. METHODS: Eligible athletes (N = 303) in the United Kingdom and Greece took part in the study. The authors randomly assigned 33 clubs to either the moral or the educational intervention. They measured outcomes pre- and postintervention and at 3- and 6-month follow-up. RESULTS: Athletes in both interventions in both countries reported lower doping likelihood and moral disengagement and higher guilt from pre- to postintervention. These effects were maintained at the 3- and 6-month follow-ups. There were no effects on moral identity or moral atmosphere. CONCLUSIONS: In addition to disseminating information about doping, doping prevention programs should include content that focuses on moral variables.

Whistleblowing against doping in sport: A cross-national study on the effects of motivation and sportspersonship orientations on whistleblowing intentions.

Whistleblowing against anti-doping rule violations and related misconduct has been recognized as an important deterrent of doping behaviour in competitive sport. However, research on whistleblowing against doping is scarce and the available studies have focused on small samples using qualitative and inductive approaches. The present study used quantitative methods to assess, for the first time, the association between self-determined motivation, achievement goals, sportspersonship orientations and intentions to engage in whistleblowing against doping misconduct. A total of 992 competitive athletes from Greece (n = 480) and Russia (n = 512) completed structured measures of self-determination, achievement goals, sportspersonship orientation beliefs, and intentions to report doping misconduct. Latent profile analysis classified athletes into clusters consistent with the theoretical predictions. One-way analyses of variance further showed consistently across countries that autonomous motivated athletes reported higher intentions to whistleblow, and athletes with higher scores in achievement goals and sportspersonship orientations had significantly higher scores in whistleblowing intentions, compared to those with lower scores in these characteristics in both countries. This is the first study to demonstrate the association between motivational regulations, achievement goals, sportspersonship beliefs, and whistleblowing intentions. The theoretical and policy implications of our study are discussed.

Athletes using ergogenic and medical sport supplements report more favourable attitudes to doping than non-users.

OBJECTIVES: Our study objectives were twofold: 1) examine whether users and non-users of different types of sport supplements vary in doping attitudes and sport supplement beliefs, and 2) determine whether the type of sport supplement is directly and indirectly (via sport supplement beliefs) related to doping attitudes. DESIGN: Cross-sectional survey. METHODS: Athletes (N=557; 77% male, mean±standard deviation; age=20.8±4.5 years, training=5.7±4.2h per week, competing=11.1±5.2 years) completed measures of sport supplement use, sport supplement beliefs, and doping attitudes. Sport supplements were classified into: ergogenic, medical, sport food and drinks, and superfoods. RESULTS: Compared to non-users, users of ergogenic (d=0.31, p<0.01) and medical (d=0.42, p<0.01) sport supplements reported more favourable attitudes towards doping. In addition, compared to non-users, users of ergogenic (d=1.10, p<0.01), medical (d=0.80, p<0.01) and sport food/drink (d=0.58, p<0.01) supplements reported stronger beliefs in the effectiveness of sport supplements to improve sport performance. Use of ergogenic, medical and sport food/drink supplements was indirectly related to doping attitudes via sport supplement beliefs. CONCLUSIONS: Researchers examining the relationship between sport supplement use and doping should differentiate between sport supplement types to improve measurement accuracy. Sport practitioners administering ergogenic and medical sport supplements to athletes may need to provide additional anti-doping education to counteract any favourable attitudes towards doping.

Testing the validity and reliability of the doping willingness in sport scale.

Although research investigating doping in sport is burgeoning, there is still a lack of proxy measures of doping behavior that have undergone extensive psychometric testing. To address this issue, we modified a previously used measure of doping willingness in sport and tested aspects of validity and reliability across four studies. In Study 1, we provided support for the face and content validity of the items, and then found support for the factor structure of the scale in a sample of athletes (N = 205) using confirmatory factor analysis. In Study 2, we collected data from an independent sample of athletes (N = 236) to provide further evidence for the factor structure of the scale using confirmatory factor analysis as well as provided evidence for concurrent and discriminant validity. In Study 3, a further independent sample of athletes (N = 144) completed the scale and provided support for discriminant and predictive validity of the scale. In Study 4, we collected data from a further independent sample (N = 74) to provide support for the test-retest reliability, and stability of items. Lastly, a confirmatory factor analysis was conducted on the samples across Studies 3 and 4, and the composite sample across all four studies which provided further support for the factor structure of the final 8-item scale. Taken together, these findings provide psychometric support for the scale to be used to measure the willingness of athletes to use banned substances to help facilitate future research investigating doping in sport.

Doping in sports among Malaysian universities athlete: survey of the knowledge, beliefs, and perception during Malaysian universities games in Kuala Lumpur 2014.

BACKGROUND: Doping in young athletes at present is on escalation. A few doping cases involving athletes from South East Asia (SEA) countries have been reported. The objective of this study is to determine current perceived doping and antidoping climate in Malaysia through an exploration of doping-related knowledge, perception and beliefs among the university athletes. METHODS: A survey was conducted during the Malaysian Universities Games in Kuala Lumpur 2014. A total of 614 athletes completed the questionnaires on perception, specific knowledge, environment, behavior and beliefs towards doping. RESULTS: From this survey, we found that their knowledge about doping and antidoping was poor, they have misguided beliefs and perception about doping, and their environment seems to be favorable for performance enhancing substances usage in the future. We grouped the athletes based on their doping's environment into ultraclean, potential and high-risk group; and the results showed that they have a significant relationship with their knowledge, beliefs and perception about doping in sports, P<0.001. About 1.5-1.8% of the studied athletes have positive behavior towards doping practice; doping use, χ2 =24.6(2) P<0.001 and doping willingness, χ2 =17.15(2) P<0.001. CONCLUSIONS: Doping behavior and doping risks in this region are still under-studied. Hence, we recommended that every South East Asia countries would identify the potential risks of doping among their young athletes, and collectively collaborating in managing doping issues involving this region. Special attention should be given to doping environment as it has negative influences on athletes behavior towards doping.

Basic values predict doping likelihood.

Basic values, defined as trans-situational goals that vary in importance and act as guiding principles in life, have been linked with unethical cognitions, emotions and actions. Their roles in doping, a form of cheating in sport, have yet to established. College athletes reported doping likelihood in hypothetical scenario-based situations and completed measures of basic values, moral disengagement, and anticipated guilt. Correlation analysis showed that doping likelihood was positively associated with self-enhancement values but negatively associated with self-transcendence values and conservation values. Moral disengagement correlated positively with self-enhancement values and negatively with self-transcendence values, whereas guilt correlated positively conservation values and negatively with self-enhancement values and openness to change values. Regression analyses showed that self-enhancement values positively predicted doping likelihood directly, self-transcendence values negatively predicted doping likelihood indirectly via moral disengagement and guilt, and conservation values negatively predicted doping likelihood indirectly via guilt. In line with theory and evidence concerning the relationship between basic value systems and moral thought and action, we found that the values of athletes are directly (self-enhancement) and indirectly (self-transcendence, conservation) linked with likely use of banned performance enhancing substances, an expression of cheating in sport.

Perfectionism and attitudes towards doping in athletes: A continuously cumulating meta-analysis and test of the 2 × 2 model.

Perfectionism may promote engagement in illegal and unacceptable behaviours such as doping. To examine this idea, in the present study, we had two aims. First, we re-examined the relationship between perfectionism and attitudes towards doping and, in doing so, conducted a continuously cumulating meta-analysis. Second, we extended our understanding of this relationship by providing the first test of the 2 × 2 model of perfectionism in context of doping. A sample of 181 university athletes (mean age 18.5 years) completed measures of perfectionism (evaluative concerns perfectionism [ECP] and personal standards perfectionism [PSP]) and attitudes toward doping. A continuously cumulating meta-analysis based on five studies (including the present study; N = 952) indicated that ECP showed a significant small-to-medium positive relationship with attitudes towards doping (r + = .21), whereas PSP showed a nonsignificant small positive relationship with attitudes towards doping (r + = .07). In addition, moderated regression analysis provided support for two hypotheses of the 2 × 2 model. Specifically, pure ECP (high ECP, low PSP) was associated with more favourable attitudes towards doping than mixed perfectionism (high ECP, high PSP) and non-perfectionism (low ECP, low PSP). The present findings suggest that ECP is a significant positive predictor of attitudes towards doping and that athletes who exhibit a combination of high ECP and low PSP are the most likely to be at risk of doping. Consequently, a focus on reducing ECP may be a valuable addition to anti-doping education programmes.

Cheater, cheater, pumpkin eater: the Dark Triad, attitudes towards doping, and cheating behaviour among athletes.

We examined the relationships between the Dark Triad personality traits (Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy), attitudes towards doping, and cheating behaviour among athletes. One-hundred and sixty-four athletes completed a completed a matrix solving task within a specific time limit. Participants were told they would receive a financial reward for the total number matrices they could solve, but only 13 of the 20 matrices were solvable. This provided the incentive and opportunity for the athletes to cheat. Following this, athletes completed two questionnaires, which assessed the Dark Triad and their attitudes towards doping. All three Dark Triad personality traits correlated positively with attitudes towards doping and cheating behaviour. Regression analyses revealed that psychopathy and narcissism positively predicted attitudes towards doping, and narcissism emerged as a positive predictor of cheating behaviour. Attitudes towards doping correlated positively with cheating behaviour. The Dark Triad appears to be important in relation to both attitudes towards doping and cheating behaviour among athletes. In addition, our findings illustrate that favourable attitudes towards doping are linked with actual cheating among athletes. National Anti-Doping Organizations, sports federations, and coaches could assess athletes' Dark Triad scores and attitudes towards doping in order to identify who may be more likely to cheat.

["Enjoy the Sport - Schools against doping and drug dependence": a health education intervention in secondary schools]. / "Enjoy the Sport - la scuola contro il doping e le dipendenza 2.0". Intervento di educazione alla salute sul doping e droga: uno studio di campo nella scuola secondaria.

INTRODUCTION: The use of doping substances is growing not only in young athletes performing competitive and non-competitive sports, but also in amateur sports, thereby representing a social and public health problem. The aim of this study was to measure knowledge, attitudes and opinions on doping and drugs and their effects, among students of secondary schools, and to assess the effectiveness of a health education intervention. "Enjoy the Sport- the school against doping and addiction 2.0" is a program developed to discourage the use of drugs, in particular doping drugs, by introducing information on the origins, on the effects of drugs and examples of appropriate lifestyles. This project was conceived by C.I.S.C.O.D. (Comitato Italiano Sport Contro Droga), an association of the C.O.N.I. and carried out with its support. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The "Enjoy" project was a study with a one-arm experimental design and with a pre-post evaluation. A multiple-choice questionnaire was used to measure adolescents' knowledge, attitudes and opinions on doping and its effects. A descriptive analysis and post-pre intervention comparison was performed with the McNemar test. RESULTS: There was a significant increase in participants' knowledge of doping substances indicated by the WADA (World Anti-Doping Agency) (p<0.001) and a better understanding of the meaning of the term "doping". A decrease in the number of adolescents who would use doping substances (pre = 0.06%; post = 0.0%) was observed, as well as an increase in the number of adolescents who do not consider fair that athletes of any level should use substances that alter their performance (pre = 83.7%; post = 85%). A significant increase was observed in the proportion of participants who believe that athletes should not use doping substances because they are harmful to the human organism (pre = 38.6%; post = 51.7%) (p<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: The project "Enjoy the Sport" contributed to increasing the health literacy of secondary school students about doping (and consequent awareness of the negative aspects of drug use). Schools, therefore, are an appropriate setting for implementing educational interventions for the prevention of doping. However, it is fundamental to integrate knowledge and action, especially in the context of family, sport and sports associations.

Anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) users on AAS use: Negative effects, 'code of silence', and implications for forensic and medical professionals.

Anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) are image and performance enhancing drugs (IPEDs) that can improve endurance and athletic performance, reduce body fat and stimulate muscle growth. The use of steroids has been studied in the medical and psychological literature, in the sociology of sport, health and masculinity, and relatively recently in criminology. Whilst there is significant medical and psychological evidence on the short term and longer side effects of AAS, there is surprisingly very little evidence based on the users' perception of the negative aspects of AAS use. Drawing on ethnographic research conducted in a locale in the Northeast of England and additional interviews with 24 AAS users, the article offers an account of the negatives aspects of AAS as put forwards by users (acne, abscess, and mood alterations), and highlights the 'code of silence' that exists around AAS use. This 'code' makes AAS users a 'hard-to-reach' group for medical professionals. By listening to the participants' perspectives, forensic and medical professionals can be better informed towards monitoring and reducing harms from AAS.

Changing attitudes and intentions related to doping: An analysis of individual differences in need for cognition.

Research has shown that athletes' attitudes towards the use of banned performance-enhancing substances are reliable predictors of their intentions to use these substances, which in turn can be relevant predictors of their actual doping behaviours. Despite the important role played by attitudes and intentions in doping, research analysing how to change those attitudes and intentions is relatively scarce. The present study examined how individual differences in Need for Cognition (NC, Cacioppo & Petty, 1982) influenced doping-related attitude change and subsequent behavioural intentions. Participants were randomly assigned to read a persuasive message either against or in favour of legalising the use of several banned substances, including anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) and Erythropoietin (EPO). In addition, participants completed the NC scale, and finally reported their attitudes and behavioural intentions regarding the legalisation proposal. As hypothesised, results showed that participants who received an anti-legalisation message had significantly more unfavourable attitudes towards the proposal than participants who received a pro-legalisation message, regardless of NC. However, as predicted, NC moderated the relationship between individuals' attitudes and their intentions. That is, high-NC participants showed greater attitude-intention correspondence than low-NC participants.