Enterovirus virus-like-particle and inactivated poliovirus vaccines do not elicit substantive cross-reactive antibody responses.

Human enteroviruses are the most common human pathogen with over 300 distinct genotypes. Previous work with poliovirus has suggested that it is possible to generate antibody responses in humans and animals that can recognize members of multiple enterovirus species. However, cross protective immunity across multiple enteroviruses is not observed epidemiologically in humans. Here we investigated whether immunization of mice or baboons with inactivated poliovirus or enterovirus virus-like-particles (VLPs) vaccines generates antibody responses that can recognize enterovirus D68 or A71. We found that mice only generated antibodies specific for the antigen they were immunized with, and repeated immunization failed to generate cross-reactive antibody responses as measured by both ELISA and neutralization assay. Immunization of baboons with IPV failed to generate neutralizing antibody responses against enterovirus D68 or A71. These results suggest that a multivalent approach to enterovirus vaccination is necessary to protect against enterovirus disease in vulnerable populations.

Global prevalence and case fatality rate of Enterovirus D68 infections, a systematic review and meta-analysis.

A substantial amount of epidemiological data has been reported on Enterovirus D68 (EV-D68) infections after the 2014 outbreak. Our goal was to map the case fatality rate (CFR) and prevalence of current and past EV-D68 infections. We conducted a systematic review (PROSPERO, CRD42021229255) with published articles on EV-68 infections in PubMed, Embase, Web of Science and Global Index Medicus up to January 2021. We determined prevalences using a model random effect. Of the 4,329 articles retrieved from the databases, 89 studies that met the inclusion criteria were from 39 different countries with apparently healthy individuals and patients with acute respiratory infections, acute flaccid myelitis and asthma-related diseases. The CFR estimate revealed occasional deaths (7/1353) related to EV-D68 infections in patients with severe acute respiratory infections. Analyses showed that the combined prevalence of current and past EV-D68 infections was 4% (95% CI = 3.1-5.0) and 66.3% (95% CI = 40.0-88.2), respectively. The highest prevalences were in hospital outbreaks, developed countries, children under 5, after 2014, and in patients with acute flaccid myelitis and asthma-related diseases. The present study shows sporadic deaths linked to severe respiratory EV-D68 infections. The study also highlights a low prevalence of current EV-D68 infections as opposed to the existence of EV-D68 antibodies in almost all participants of the included studies. These findings therefore highlight the need to implement and/or strengthen continuous surveillance of EV-D68 infections in hospitals and in the community for the anticipation of the response to future epidemics.

Transcriptomic Profiling Reveals a Role for TREM-1 Activation in Enterovirus D68 Infection-Induced Proinflammatory Responses.

Increasing cases related to the pathogenicity of Enterovirus D68 (EV-D68) have made it a growing worldwide public health concern, especially due to increased severe respiratory illness and acute flaccid myelitis (AFM) in children. There are currently no vaccines or medicines to prevent or treat EV-D68 infections. Herein, we performed genome-wide transcriptional profiling of EV-D68-infected human rhabdomyosarcoma (RD) cells to investigate host-pathogen interplay. RNA sequencing and subsequent experiments revealed that EV-D68 infection induced a profound transcriptional dysregulation of host genes, causing significantly elevated inflammatory responses and altered antiviral immune responses. In particular, triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 1 (TREM-1) is involved in highly activated TREM-1 signaling processes, acting as an important mediator in EV-D68 infection, and it is related to upregulation of interleukin 8 (IL-8), IL-6, IL-12p70, IL-1ß, and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α). Further results demonstrated that NF-κB p65 was essential for EV-D68-induced TREM-1 upregulation. Moreover, inhibition of the TREM1 signaling pathway by the specific inhibitor LP17 dampened activation of the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling cascade, suggesting that TREM-1 mainly transmits activation signals to phosphorylate p38 MAPK. Interestingly, treatment with LP17 to inhibit TREM-1 inhibited viral replication and infection. These findings imply the pathogenic mechanisms of EV-D68 and provide critical insight into therapeutic intervention in enterovirus diseases.

Functional and structural characterization of a two-MAb cocktail for delayed treatment of enterovirus D68 infections.

Enterovirus D68 (EV-D68) is an emerging pathogen associated with respiratory diseases and/or acute flaccid myelitis. Here, two MAbs, 2H12 and 8F12, raised against EV-D68 virus-like particle (VLP), show distinct preference in binding VLP and virion and in neutralizing different EV-D68 strains. A combination of 2H12 and 8F12 exhibits balanced and potent neutralization effects and confers broader protection in mice than single MAbs when given at onset of symptoms. Cryo-EM structures of EV-D68 virion complexed with 2H12 or 8F12 show that both antibodies bind to the canyon region of the virion, creating steric hindrance for sialic acid receptor binding. Additionally, 2H12 binding can impair virion integrity and trigger premature viral uncoating. We also capture an uncoating intermediate induced by 2H12 binding, not previously described for picornaviruses. Our study elucidates the structural basis and neutralizing mechanisms of the 2H12 and 8F12 MAbs and supports further development of the 2H12/8F12 cocktail as a broad-spectrum therapeutic agent against EV-D68 infections in humans.

Seroepidemiology of enterovirus D68 in a healthy population in Beijing, China, between 2012 and 2017: A retrospective study.

To investigate the seroepidemiological features of enterovirus D68 (EV-D68) in the healthy population from 2012 to 2017 in Beijing, China. A retrospective cross-sectional investigation was conducted using serum specimens collected from healthy individuals in Beijing from 2012 to 2017. These samples were tested for neutralization antibodies (NtAbs) against EV-D68. The sera from six EV-D68 infected patients in the acute or convalescent phase were used to determine the protection level of NtAbs against EV-D68. The geometric means of the titers (GMT) of EV-D68 NtAbs in 2012 and 2017 were 92.82 and 242.91, respectively; the seroprevalences of EV-D68 were 89.43% and 98.43%, respectively. The GMT reached its peak in the 11 to 15 age group in 2012, while in 16 to 20 age group in 2017. We also observed that EV-D68 NtAbs titers of six sera from the acute phase were all less than equal to 1:64 and that of three sera from the convalescent phase were all more than 1:64. Anti-EV-D68 NtAbs in the population remained low from 2012 to 2016 but increased significantly in 2017. Although most of the EV-D68 infections remain undetected in Beijing, the risk of a large outbreak of EV-D68 exists and should be taken seriously.

Human antibodies neutralize enterovirus D68 and protect against infection and paralytic disease.

Enterovirus D68 (EV-D68) causes outbreaks of respiratory illness, and there is increasing evidence that it causes outbreaks of acute flaccid myelitis (AFM). There are no licensed therapies to prevent or treat EV-D68 infection or AFM disease. We isolated a panel of EV-D68-reactive human monoclonal antibodies that recognize diverse antigenic variants from participants with prior infection. One potently neutralizing cross-reactive antibody, EV68-228, protected mice from respiratory and neurologic disease when given either before or after infection. Cryo-electron microscopy studies revealed that EV68-228 and another potently neutralizing antibody (EV68-159) bound around the fivefold or threefold axes of symmetry on virion particles, respectively. The structures suggest diverse mechanisms of action by these antibodies. The high potency and effectiveness observed in vivo suggest that antibodies are a mechanistic correlate of protection against AFM disease and are candidates for clinical use in humans with EV-D68 infection.

Fluctuations in Antibody Titers against Enterovirus D68 in Pediatric Sera Collected in a Community before, during, and after a Possible Outbreak.

We previously reported a hospital-based epidemiological study on enterovirus (EV)-D68 infection among children during the autumn of 2015, which indirectly inferred an outbreak in Sendai, Japan. In this study, stocked sera of children (aged 0-6 years; without symptoms of infectious diseases) in the Sendai community collected during 4 periods (1 year before, 6 months before, immediately after, and 1 year after the possible outbreak period) were analyzed using the neutralization antibody titer assay to determine community children's immunity levels against EV-D68 infection. The immunity levels were confirmed to have increased during the possible outbreak period and to have gradually waned over 1 year without another outbreak. These results provide background information supporting the results of our previous hospital-based surveillance study.

Enterovirus D68 serosurvey: evidence for endemic circulation in the Netherlands, 2006 to 2016.

BackgroundEnterovirus D68 (EV-D68) has caused major outbreaks of severe respiratory illness worldwide since 2010.AimOur aim was to evaluate EV-D68 circulation in the Netherlands by conducting a serosurvey of EV-D68 neutralising antibodies (nAb) among the Dutch general population.MethodsWe screened 280 sera from children and adults in the Netherlands and used two independent sets of samples collected in the years 2006 and 2007 and in the years 2015 and 2016, time points before and after the first EV-D68 upsurge in 2010. Neutralisation capacity of the sera was tested against the prototype Fermon EV-D68 strain isolated in 1962 and against a recent EV-D68 strain (genotype B3) isolated in France in 2016.ResultsRegardless of the time of serum collection, we found remarkably high overall seropositivity (94.3-98.3%) for nAb against both EV-D68 strains. Geometric mean titres increased in an age-dependent manner.ConclusionsOur data suggest that EV-D68 has been circulating in the Netherlands for decades and that the enterovirus surveillance does not accurately capture the prevalence of this clinically relevant pathogen.

Antibodies to Enteroviruses in Cerebrospinal Fluid of Patients with Acute Flaccid Myelitis.

Acute flaccid myelitis (AFM) has caused motor paralysis in >560 children in the United States since 2014. The temporal association of enterovirus (EV) outbreaks with increases in AFM cases and reports of fever, respiratory, or gastrointestinal illness prior to AFM in >90% of cases suggest a role for infectious agents. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from 14 AFM and 5 non-AFM patients with central nervous system (CNS) diseases in 2018 were investigated by viral-capture high-throughput sequencing (VirCapSeq-VERT system). These CSF and serum samples, as well as multiple controls, were tested for antibodies to human EVs using peptide microarrays. EV RNA was confirmed in CSF from only 1 adult AFM case and 1 non-AFM case. In contrast, antibodies to EV peptides were present in CSF of 11 of 14 AFM patients (79%), significantly higher than controls, including non-AFM patients (1/5 [20%]), children with Kawasaki disease (0/10), and adults with non-AFM CNS diseases (2/11 [18%]) (P = 0.023, 0.0001, and 0.0028, respectively). Six of 14 CSF samples (43%) and 8 of 11 sera (73%) from AFM patients were immunoreactive to an EV-D68-specific peptide, whereas the three control groups were not immunoreactive in either CSF (0/5, 0/10, and 0/11; P = 0.008, 0.0003, and 0.035, respectively) or sera (0/2, 0/8, and 0/5; P = 0.139, 0.002, and 0.009, respectively).IMPORTANCE The presence in cerebrospinal fluid of antibodies to EV peptides at higher levels than non-AFM controls supports the plausibility of a link between EV infection and AFM that warrants further investigation and has the potential to lead to strategies for diagnosis and prevention of disease.

Molecular epidemiological study of enterovirus D68 in hospitalised children in Hong Kong in 2014-2015 and their complete coding sequences.

Background: Human enterovirus D68 (EV-D68) was first isolated in 1962 and has aroused public concern recently because of a nationwide outbreak among children in 2014-2015 in the USA. The symptoms include fever, runny nose, sneezing, cough and muscle pains. It might be associated with severe respiratory illness in individuals with pre-existing respiratory conditions and its potential association with acute flaccid myelitis is under investigation. In Asia, EV-D68 cases have been reported in several countries. The study: We aimed to understand the EV-D68 prevalence and their genetic diversity in Hong Kong children. Methods: A total of 10 695 nasopharyngeal aspirate (NPA) samples from hospitalised patients aged <18 years were collected from September 2014 to December 2015 in two regional hospitals. NPAs tested positive for enterovirus/rhinovirus (EV/RV) were selected for genotyping. For those identified as EV-D68, their complete coding sequences (CDSs) were obtained by Sanger sequencing. A maximum-likelihood phylogeny was constructed using all EV-D68 complete coding sequences available in GenBank (n=482). Results: 2662/10 695 (24.9%) were tested positive with EV/RV and 882/2662 (33.1%) were selected randomly and subjected to molecular classification. EV-D68 was detected in 15 (1.70%) samples from patients with clinical presentations ranging from wheezing to pneumonia and belonged to subclade B3. Eight CDSs were successfully obtained. A total of 10 amino acid residue polymorphisms were detected in the viral capsid proteins, proteases, ATPase and RNA polymerase. Conclusion: B3 subclade was the only subclade found locally. Surveillance of EV-D68 raises public awareness and provides the information to determine the most relevant genotypes for vaccine development.

Neutralizing Antibody against Enterovirus D68 in Children and Adults before 2014 Outbreak, Kansas City, Missouri, USA1.

We evaluated enterovirus D68 seroprevalence in Kansas City, Missouri, USA, from samples obtained during 2012-2013. Neutralizing antibodies against Fermon and the dominant 2014 Missouri isolate were universally detected. Titers increased with age. Widespread circulation of enterovirus D68 occurred before the 2014 outbreak. Research is needed to determine a surrogate of protection.

Current Understanding of Humoral Immunity to Enterovirus D68.

Enterovirus D68 (EV-D68) is a pathogen that causes outbreaks of respiratory illness across the world, mostly in children, and can be especially severe in those with asthma. Clusters of acute flaccid myelitis, a poliomyelitis-like neuromuscular weakness syndrome, often occur concurrent with EV-D68 respiratory outbreaks. Seroepidemiologic studies have found that the serum of nearly everyone older than 2 to 5 years contains anti-EV-D68 neutralizing antibodies, which suggests that EV-D68 is a ubiquitous pathogen of childhood. However, knowledge of the viral epitopes against which the humoral immune response is directed is only inferred from previous studies of related viruses. Although neutralizing antibodies protect newborn mice from lethal EV-D68 inoculation via nonphysiologic routes, cotton rats have a mixed phenotype of both benefit and possible exacerbation when inoculated intranasally. The human antibody response to EV-D68 needs to be studied further to clarify the role of antibodies in protection versus pathogenesis, which might differ among respiratory and neurologic disease phenotypes.

Enterovirus D68 infection induces IL-17-dependent neutrophilic airway inflammation and hyperresponsiveness.

Enterovirus D68 (EV-D68) shares biologic features with rhinovirus (RV). In 2014, a nationwide outbreak of EV-D68 was associated with severe asthma-like symptoms. We sought to develop a mouse model of EV-D68 infection and determine the mechanisms underlying airway disease. BALB/c mice were inoculated intranasally with EV-D68 (2014 isolate), RV-A1B, or sham, alone or in combination with anti-IL-17A or house dust mite (HDM) treatment. Like RV-A1B, lung EV-D68 viral RNA peaked 12 hours after infection. EV-D68 induced airway inflammation, expression of cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6, IL-12b, IL-17A, CXCL1, CXCL2, CXCL10, and CCL2), and airway hyperresponsiveness, which were suppressed by anti-IL-17A antibody. Neutrophilic inflammation and airway responsiveness were significantly higher after EV-D68 compared with RV-A1B infection. Flow cytometry showed increased lineage-, NKp46-, RORγt+ IL-17+ILC3s and γδ T cells in the lungs of EV-D68-treated mice compared with those in RV-treated mice. EV-D68 infection of HDM-exposed mice induced additive or synergistic increases in BAL neutrophils and eosinophils and expression of IL-17, CCL11, IL-5, and Muc5AC. Finally, patients from the 2014 epidemic period with EV-D68 showed significantly higher nasopharyngeal IL-17 mRNA levels compared with patients with RV-A infection. EV-D68 infection induces IL-17-dependent airway inflammation and hyperresponsiveness, which is greater than that generated by RV-A1B, consistent with the clinical picture of severe asthma-like symptoms.

A cross-sectional seroepidemiology study of EV-D68 in China.

Enterovirus 68 (EV-D68) is associated with respiratory diseases, such as acute upper respiratory tract infections (URTIs), lower respiratory tract infections (LRTIs), pneumonia, neurological diseases, and acute flaccid myelitis (AFM). In recent years, there have been global outbreaks of EV-D68 epidemics. However, there is no effective vaccine against EV-D68, and the understanding of the seroprevalence characteristics of EV-D68 is limited. To evaluate the epidemiological features of this emerging infection in mainland China, serum samples from 20 pairs of pregnant women and their neonates, 405 infants and children (ages 1 month-15 years), and 50 adults were collected to measure EV-D68 neutralizing antibodies (NtAbs). The results showed that the geometric mean titers (GMTs) of pregnant women and their neonates were 168 (95%CI: 93.6-301.7) and 162.3 (95%CI: 89.9-293.1), respectively. The seroprevalence rate of EV-D68 antibodies was negatively correlated with age in 1-month-old to 12-month-old infants (84% for 1-month-old infants vs 10% for 1-year-old infants), whereas it was positively correlated with age for 1-year-old to 15-year-old children (10% for 1-year-old children vs 92% for 15-year-old children). This study evaluated maternal antibodies against EV-D68 in neonates. Our results showed that if mothers had high levels of anti-EV-D68 NtAbs, the NtAbs titers in their neonates were also high. The GMTs and seroprevalence rates of each age group indicated that EV-D68 infection was very common in China. Periodical EV-D68 seroprevalence surveys and vaccination campaigns should be the top priority for preventing EV-D68 infection.

A Mouse Model of Enterovirus D68 Infection for Assessment of the Efficacy of Inactivated Vaccine.

In recent years, enterovirus D68 (EVD68) has been reported increasingly to be associated with severe respiratory tract infections and acute flaccid myelitis (AFM) in children all over the world. Yet, no effective vaccines or antiviral drugs are currently available for EVD68. Although several experimental animal models have been developed, immunogenicity and protective efficacy of inactivated EVD68 vaccines has not been fully evaluated. To promote the development of vaccines, we established an Institute of Cancer Research (ICR) suckling mouse model of EVD68 infection in this study. The results showed that ICR neonatal mice up to about nine days of age were susceptible to infection with EVD68 clinical strain US/MO/14-18947 by intraperitoneal injection. The infected mice exhibited progressive limb paralysis prior to death and the mortality of mice was age- and virus dose-dependent. Tissue viral load analysis showed that limb muscle and spinal cord were the major sites of viral replication. Moreover, histopathologic examination revealed the severe necrosis of the limb and juxtaspinal muscles, suggesting that US/MO/14-18947 has a strong tropism toward muscle tissues. Additionally, ß-propiolactone-inactivated EVD68 vaccine showed high purity and quality and induced robust EVD68-specific neutralizing antibody responses in adult mice. Importantly, results from both antisera transfer and maternal immunization experiments clearly showed that inactivated EVD68 vaccine was able to protect against lethal viral infection in the mouse model. In short, these results demonstrate the successful establishment of the mouse model of EVD68 infection for evaluating candidate vaccines against EVD68 and also provide important information for the development of inactivated virus-based EVD68 vaccines.

A virus-like particle vaccine confers protection against enterovirus D68 lethal challenge in mice.

Enterovirus D68 (EV-D68) is increasingly associated with severe acute respiratory infection and acute flaccid myelitis (AFM) in children around the world. However, neither vaccines nor therapeutic drugs are available for EV-D68. Here we report the development of a virus-like particle (VLP) based experimental EV-D68 vaccine. We found that EV-D68 VLPs could be successfully generated in insect cells infected with a recombinant baculovirus co-expressing the P1 precursor and 3CD protease of EV-D68. Biochemical and electron microscopic analyses revealed that EV-D68 VLPs were composed of VP0, VP1, and VP3 capsid proteins derived from precursor P1 and were visualized as spherical particles of ∼30 nm in diameter. Immunization of mice with EV-D68 VLPs resulted in the production of serum antibodies that displayed potent serotype-specific neutralizing activities against EV-D68 virus in vitro. Passive transfer of anti-VLP sera completely protected neonatal recipient mice from lethal EV-D68 infection. Moreover, maternal immunization with these VLPs provided full protection against lethal EV-D68 challenge in suckling mice. Together, these results demonstrate that the recombinant EV-D68 VLP is a promising vaccine candidate against EV-D68 infection.

Non-polio Enterovirus detection with acute flaccid paralysis: A systematic review.

Acute flaccid paralysis (AFP), as defined by the World Health Organization (WHO), is characterized by an acute onset of limb weakness. In the post-polio era, other enterovirus (EV) serotypes associated with AFP may become more prominent. This study aims to collate the data on the non-polio enteroviruses (NPEV) associated with AFP. A systematic review of published case reports, case series, and surveillance studies of AFP from 1960 through 2017 was undertaken. Data were collected including the country of the study, number of specimens positive for NPEV and available clinical data. The majority of studies originated from Asia. In surveillance studies, EV 71 (a serotype of Enterovirus A) was the most commonly detected serotype with AFP, followed by Enterovirus B serotype echovirus 11 and then Enterovirus B serotype echovirus 11. In case studies and case reports, EV 71 and EV 68 (a serotype of Enterovirus D), were the most commonly detected NPEV. As poliovirus eradication continues, there is a need to ensure that AFP surveillance will also detect other potentially vaccine preventable viruses.

Evaluating Treatment Efficacy in a Mouse Model of Enterovirus D68-Associated Paralytic Myelitis.

Background: Enterovirus D68 (EV-D68)-associated acute flaccid myelitis (AFM) is a devastating neurological disease for which there are no treatments of proven efficacy. The unpredictable temporal and geographic distribution of cases and the rarity of the disease make it unlikely that data from randomized controlled trials will be available to guide therapeutic decisions. We evaluated the following 3 widely used empirical therapies for the ability to reduce the severity of paralysis in a mouse model of EV-D68 infection: (1) human intravenous immunoglobulin (hIVIG), (2) fluoxetine, and (3) dexamethasone. Methods: Neonatal mice were injected intramuscularly with a human 2014 EV-D68 isolate that reliably induces paralysis in mice due to infection and loss of spinal cord motor neurons. Mice receiving treatments were evaluated for motor impairment, mortality, and spinal cord viral load. Results: hIVIG, which contained neutralizing antibodies to EV-D68, reduced paralysis in infected mice and decreased spinal cord viral loads. Fluoxetine had no effect on motor impairment or viral loads. Dexamethasone treatment worsened motor impairment, increased mortality, and increased viral loads. Conclusion: Results in this model of EV-D68-associated AFM provide a rational basis for selecting empirical therapy in humans and establish this model as a useful system for evaluating other potential therapies.