The safety and efficacy of neuromodulation using percutaneous electrical nerve stimulation for the management of trigeminal-mediated headshaking in 168 horses.

BACKGROUND: Early results from the use of neuromodulation by percutaneous electrical nerve stimulation for the management of trigeminal-mediated headshaking in horses were promising but lacked sufficient case numbers and long-term follow-up. The neuromodulatory procedure has since been established as EquiPENS™. OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to report long-term results from a larger number of cases and to investigate for predictors of outcome. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective case series using international, multi-centre data. METHODS: Eligible cases were horses with a veterinary diagnosis of trigeminal-mediated headshaking, which received EquiPENS™ neuromodulation at trained centres between August 2013 and November 2017. The standard protocol was an initial three-procedure course, with additional procedures should a horse go into remission but then relapse. Data collected included signalment, history, diagnostic tests performed, details of any complications, whether horses had gone into remission and the length of remission. RESULTS: Results were obtained from 168 horses, with 530 procedures. The complication rate was 8.8% of procedures. In all but one case, complications were mild and transient, without self-trauma. Remission of headshaking following the initial course occurred in 53% (72/136) of horses. Median length of time recorded in remission was 9.5 weeks (range 2 days to 156 weeks ongoing). Where signs recurred, most horses went back into remission following additional procedures, usually for longer than from the previous procedure. No predictors for outcome were determined. MAIN LIMITATIONS: No placebo or control group, owner-assessed results. CONCLUSIONS: EquiPENS™ neuromodulation can be an effective and safe treatment for the management of trigeminal-mediated headshaking in some horses. An increased understanding of neuromodulation could help optimise the technique. Advances in treatment for trigeminal-mediated headshaking will remain limited until there is a greater understanding of the aetiopathogenesis of the condition.

Is Electrical Nerve Stimulation the Answer for Management of Equine Headshaking?

Horses with trigeminal mediated headshaking (TMHS) have a decreased activation threshold of the trigeminal nerve and clinical signs are suspected to be a manifestation of trigeminal neuralgia. Electrical nerve stimulation (ENS) is used for management of neuralgia in humans and appears to work via gate control theory. Use of an equine specific percutaneous ENS program in over 130 TMHS horses has resulted in approximately 50% success return to previous work. Electroacupuncture may also be useful in the management TMHS. Optimization of ENS procedures for TMHS is likely to require a greater understanding of the etiopathogenesis of the aberrant neurophysiology.

Canine and Feline Patients Referred Exclusively for Acupuncture and Herbs: A Two-Year Retrospective Analysis.

Acupuncture and the administration of herbal supplements are increasingly used in veterinary practice, but no retrospective studies have examined patient characteristics and treatment interventions in a population of dogs and cats presenting exclusively for such therapies. This two-year retrospective analysis of 161 referrals to an integrative medicine service at an academic teaching hospital found that dogs were more frequently treated than cats (91.9% vs. 8.1%, respectively) and that small animal patients most frequently were presented for musculoskeletal (26.7%), neurologic (16.8%), oncologic (14.9%), and dermatologic (10.6%) conditions. Cats were older than treated dogs (12.7 ± 3.7 vs. 9.5 ± 4.3 years) and more likely to be treated for oncologic complaints (odds ratio = 5.6). Patients received acupuncture (95.4%), herbal supplements (76.4%), acupuncture with percutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (electroacupuncture, 26.1%), and/or cyanocobalamin injections in acupuncture points (pharmacopuncture, 23.6%). Some differences were detected between treatment groups. This retrospective analysis provides a foundation for designing future prospective studies using acupuncture and herbs in dogs and cats.

Eletroacupuntura na analgesia trans e pós-operatória de cadelas submetidas à ovariosalpingohisterectomia / Electroacupuncture in trans and postoperative analgesia in bitches submitted to ovariosalpingohisterectomy

Objetivou-se com este estudo avaliar o efeito analgésico trans e pós-operatório da eletroacupuntura em onda denso-dispersa e frequências 3 e 200Hz, nos pontos E44, R3 e BP4, compará-lo com a analgesia promovida pelos pontos BP6, E36 e VB 34, e pela morfina, em cadelas submetidas à ovariosalpingohisterectomia (OSH). Teve-se como hipótese que a eletroacupuntura nos pontos E44, R3 e BP4 resultaria em controle da dor trans e pós-operatória melhor ou igual àquele promovido pela eletroacupuntura nos pontos BP6, E36 e VB34 e pela morfina. Trinta e seis cadelas submetidas à cirurgia eletiva de OSH foram distribuídas em blocos ao acaso em três grupos com 12 animais. Em dois grupos foi realizada eletroacupuntura denso-dispersa, com frequência de 3 e 200Hz, sendo que, no primeiro grupo (GEA), foram estimulados os pontos BP4, E44, R3 e, no segundo grupo (GEB), os pontos BP6, E36, VB34...

Thirty-six dogs undergoing elective ovariohysterectomy surgery were randomly distributed into 3 groups of 12 animals each. In the first group, dense-dispersed electroacupuncture was performed with a frequency of 3-200 Hz in SP4, ST44, KID3 points and 1.5mL of saline was given intramuscularly (GEA group). For the second group, dense-dispersed electroacupuncture was performed with a frequency of 3-200 Hz in SP6, ST36, GB34 points and 1.5mL of saline given intramuscularly (GEB group)...

Nerve stimulator-guided sciatic-femoral nerve block in raptors undergoing surgical treatment of pododermatitis.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the nerve stimulator-guided sciatic-femoral nerve block in raptors undergoing surgical treatment of pododermatitis. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective clinical trial. ANIMALS: Five captive raptors (Falco peregrinus) aged 6.7 ± 1.3 years. METHODS: Anaesthesia was induced and maintained with isoflurane in oxygen. The sciatic-femoral nerve block was performed with 2% lidocaine (0.05 mL kg(-1) per nerve) as the sole intra-operative analgesic treatment. Intraoperative physiological variables were recorded every 10 minutes from endotracheal intubation until the end of anaesthesia. Assessment of intraoperative nociception was based on changes in physiological variables above baseline values, while evaluation of postoperative pain relied on species-specific behavioural indicators. RESULTS: The sciatic-femoral nerve block was feasible in raptors and the motor responses following electrical stimulation of both nerves were consistent with those reported in mammalian species. During surgery no rescue analgesia was required. The anaesthesia plane was stable and cardiorespiratory variables did not increase significantly in response to surgical stimulation. Iatrogenic complications, namely nerve damage and local anaesthetic toxicity, did not occur. Recovery was smooth and uneventful. The duration (mean ± SD) of the analgesic effect provided by the nerve block was 130 ± 20 minutes. CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The sciatic-femoral nerve block as described in dogs and rabbits can be performed in raptors as well. Further clinical trials with a control groups are required to better investigate the analgesic efficacy and the safety of this technique in raptors.

Electrophysiologic confirmation of heterogenous motor polyneuropathy in young cats.

BACKGROUND: Reports of motor polyneuropathies in young cats are scarce. Further, in-depth electrophysiologic evaluation to confirm a motor polyneuropathy in young cats of various breeds other than 2 Bengal cats is lacking. HYPOTHESIS/OBJECTIVES: To confirm a motor polyneuropathy in young cats of various breeds. ANIMALS: Five young cats with heterogenous chronic or relapsing episodes of weakness. METHODS: Retrospective case series. Cats were presented for evaluation of generalized neuromuscular disease and underwent electrophysiologic examination including electromyography, nerve conduction, and repetitive nerve stimulation. Minimum database and muscle and nerve biopsy analyses were carried out. Descriptive statistics were performed. RESULTS: Disease onset was at 3 months to 1 year of age and in 5 breeds. The most common clinical sign (5 of 5 cats) was weakness. Additional neurologic deficits consisted of palmigrade and plantigrade posture (4/4), low carriage of the head and tail (4/4), and variable segmental reflex deficits (5/5). Motor nerve conduction studies were abnormal for the ulnar (4/4), peroneal (5/5), and tibial (2/2) nerves (increased latencies, reduced amplitudes, slow velocities). A marked decrement was observed on repetitive nerve stimulation of the peroneal nerve in 3 cats for which autoimmune myasthenia gravis was ruled out. All sensory nerve conduction studies were normal. Histologic evaluation of muscle and nerve biopsies supported heterogenous alterations consistent with motor polyneuropathy with distal nerve fiber loss. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: Heterogenous motor polyneuropathies should be considered in young cats of any breed and sex that are presented with relapsing or progressive generalized neuromuscular disease.

Peripheral nerve stimulation under ultrasonographic control to determine the needle-to-nerve relationship.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the needle-to-nerve distances during electrical nerve location in dogs at different currents and pulse duration using a peripheral nerve stimulator (PNS) under ultrasound control (US), and the minimal electrical thresholds (MET) necessary to obtain a motor response (MR) after achieving needle-to-nerve contact. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective in vivo experimental trial in a clinical setting ANIMALS: Thirty dogs, scheduled for locoregional anaesthesia of the sciatic nerve. METHODS: Needle-to-nerve distance was measured ultrasonographically after obtaining the MR of sciatic nerve with 2, 1 and 0.5 mA and pulse duration 0.1 ms (NS0.1). Thereafter the needle was placed in contact with the nerve and MET was determined. The procedure was repeated with 0.3 ms (NS0.3). Finally the needle was reintroduced to contact the sciatic nerve guided only by US, thus MET-US was determined. Data were analysed using Kruskal-Wallis or Mann-Whitney tests. RESULTS: Needle-to-nerve distances were greater when MR was obtained with 2 mA than with 1 and 0.5 mA at 0.1 and 0.3 ms. No significant differences were observed between the needle-to-nerve distances using 0.1 or 0.3 ms. The MET [median (range)] was 0.4 (0.18-1.3) mA in NS0.1, 0.32 (0.12-0.8) mA in NS0.3; while MET-US was 0.7 (0.32-1.5) mA. When the needle contacted the nerve, the MR achieved with currents below 0.3 mA was obtained in 17.2, 40 and 0% of cases using NS0.1, NS0.3 and US respectively. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The electrical current necessary to obtain a MR decreased as the needle moved towards the nerve. However when the needle tip contacted the nerve, an MR with low current intensity could not be obtained. Thus the absence of motor response at currents below 0.3 mA cannot rule out needle-epineurium contact. When ultrasound is combined with PNS, it is more important to assess the correct needle position than searching for an MR at low currents.

Concentration-dependent isoflurane effects on withdrawal reflexes in pigs and the role of the stimulation paradigm.

In this prospective two-phase experimental trial, 10 pigs were anaesthetized twice with isoflurane only. In the first phase, the individual minimum alveolar concentration (MAC) was determined and in the second phase the effects on withdrawal reflexes of increasing end-tidal isoflurane concentrations (from 1.6% to 2.8%) were assessed. Single, 10 and 60 repeated electrical stimulations were used to evoke withdrawal reflexes which were recorded and quantified by electromyography. Recruitment curves for reflex amplitude for increasing stimulation intensities and isoflurane concentrations were constructed. Isoflurane MAC was 1.9 ± 0.3%. Reflexes evoked by repeated stimulation were suppressed at isoflurane concentrations significantly higher than those which suppressed complex movements during MAC determination (P=0.014 and P=0.006 for 10 and 60 repeated stimuli respectively). Isoflurane up to 2.8% was still not able to abolish reflex activity evoked by repeated stimulations in all pigs. Single stimulation reflexes were suppressed at significantly lower concentrations than repeated stimulation reflexes (P=0.008 and P=0.004 for 10 and 60 repeated stimuli, respectively). Reflex amplitude was significantly correlated with isoflurane concentration (P<0.001, r=-0.85) independent of the individual MAC. The findings indicate that the level at which isoflurane suppresses withdrawal reflexes is dependent on the stimulation paradigm (single vs. repeated electrical stimulation), and there is limited value in expressing reflex withdrawal suppression in terms of MAC as purposeful and reflex movements are independently affected by isoflurane in individual animals.

Quantitative assessment of physiological and behavioural parameters in healthy dairy cows evoked by transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation of the udder.

The pain and distress associated with transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) of the udder was evaluated by treating 20 healthy dairy cows with an electrical udder stimulator. This generated a sequence of pulses (frequency: 160±10% impulses per second, duration 250 µs) and provided voltage ranges from 0 to 10 volts (±10%). Trials took place on three consecutive days, twice daily after morning and evening milking. Daily sessions were divided into two periods: (1) control (sham treatment) and (2) treatment (real treatment). Physiological (heart rate, respiratory rate, and plasma cortisol concentration) as well as ethological parameters (kicking, weight shifting, and looking backwards to udder) were defined as pain-indicating parameters and observed. Evaluation of data showed that only one parameter (kicking) was significantly increased during real treatment compared to sham treatment. It is concluded that the TENS therapy tested in this study can evoke changes in behaviour (increased kicking) consistent with an experience of pain in some cows.

In vivo canine muscle function assay.

We describe a minimally-invasive and reproducible method to measure canine pelvic limb muscle strength and muscle response to repeated eccentric contractions. The pelvic limb of an anesthetized dog is immobilized in a stereotactic frame to align the tibia at a right angle to the femur. Adhesive wrap affixes the paw to a pedal mounted on the shaft of a servomotor to measure torque. Percutaneous nerve stimulation activates pelvic limb muscles of the paw to either push (extend) or pull (flex) against the pedal to generate isometric torque. Percutaneous tibial nerve stimulation activates tibiotarsal extensor muscles. Repeated eccentric (lengthening) contractions are induced in the tibiotarsal flexor muscles by percutaneous peroneal nerve stimulation. The eccentric protocol consists of an initial isometric contraction followed by a forced stretch imposed by the servomotor. The rotation effectively lengthens the muscle while it contracts, e.g., an eccentric contraction. During stimulation flexor muscles are subjected to an 800 msec isometric and 200 msec eccentric contraction. This procedure is repeated every 5 sec. To avoid fatigue, 4 min rest follows every 10 contractions with a total of 30 contractions performed.

The optimal size and placement of transdermal electrodes are critical for the efficacy of a transcutaneous pacemaker in dogs.

Transcutaneous cardiac pacing (TCP) can be used in dogs with a high risk for bradyarrhythmias prior to anesthesia, either in an emergency room or intensive care unit setting. Furthermore, TCP can also be used on patients diagnosed with bradyarrhythmias that require temporary pacing at the induction of anesthesia for the implantation of a permanent pacemaker. Despite the importance of TCP in emergency medicine, no studies have evaluated the optimal size and placement of the transdermal electrodes crucial for the efficacy of TCP in dogs. This study evaluated four different sizes of electrodes (10.5, 20, 30 and 40 cm2), and four different anatomical sites (anterior-posterior, left-right, apex-base, modified left-right) in order to optimize the efficacy of TCP in dogs. Electrodes with a surface area of 20 cm2 and a modified left-right placement minimized the pacing current and involuntary skeletal muscular contraction (muscular twitching) and so achieved the most optimal effect of TCP in dogs.

Evaluation of changes in cardiac biomarker concentrations and enzyme activities in serum after short- and long-duration transcutaneous cardiac pacing in dogs.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate serum cardiac biomarker concentrations and selected enzyme activities in dogs with experimentally induced bradyarrhythmias after short- (1-hour) and long- (3-hour) duration transcutaneous cardiac pacing (TCP). ANIMALS: 10 healthy Beagles. PROCEDURES: In each dog, anesthesia was induced with propofol (5 mg/kg, IV) and maintained via inhalation of isoflurane in oxygen. To induce bradyarrhythmia, diltiazem was administered IV (20 to 50 mg/dog). Transcutaneous cardiac pacing was performed for 1 hour (5 dogs) or 3 hours (5 dogs) by use of an automated external cardiac pulse generator and a transdermal electrode. Serum concentrations of creatine kinase-MB fraction and cardiac troponin I and activities of aspartate transaminase, creatine kinase, and lactate dehydrogenase were evaluated the day before (baseline) and at intervals until 7 days after TCP. RESULTS: Increases (from baseline) in serum cardiac biomarker concentrations and enzyme activities were detected in the long-duration TCP group; changes in the short-duration TCP group were more minor and largely not significant. Although severity of myocardial and skeletal muscular injuries was apparently greater with greater duration of TCP, the injuries were not persistent; most variables were within reference range within 3 days after TCP. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results indicated that application of TCP for > 1 hour in dogs may cause myocardial and skeletal muscular injuries. Serum concentrations of creatine kinase-MB fraction and cardiac troponin I and activities of aspartate transaminase, creatine kinase, and lactate dehydrogenase should be more carefully monitored after TCP of > 1 hour's duration to evaluate potential myocardial damages.

Plasma levels of a low-dose constant-rate-infusion of ketamine and its effect on single and repeated nociceptive stimuli in conscious dogs.

This study quantitatively investigated the analgesic action of a low-dose constant-rate-infusion (CRI) of racemic ketamine (as a 0.5 mg kg(-1) bolus and at a dose rate of 10 microg kg(-1) min(-1)) in conscious dogs using a nociceptive withdrawal reflex (NWR) and with enantioselective measurement of plasma levels of ketamine and norketamine. Withdrawal reflexes evoked by transcutaneous single and repeated electrical stimulation (10 pulses, 5 Hz) of the digital plantar nerve were recorded from the biceps femoris muscle using surface electromyography. Ketamine did not affect NWR thresholds or the recruitment curves after a single nociceptive stimulation. Temporal summation (as evaluated by repeated stimuli) and the evoked behavioural response scores were however reduced compared to baseline demonstrating the antinociceptive activity of ketamine correlated with the peak plasma concentrations. Thereafter the plasma levels at pseudo-steady-state did not modulate temporal summation. Based on these experimental findings low-dose ketamine CRI cannot be recommended for use as a sole analgesic in the dog.

Select modalities.

Physical rehabilitation modalities such as therapeutic ultrasound (TU), transcutaneous electrical neuromuscular stimulation (TENS), neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES), cold or low-level laser therapy (LLLT), and pulsed magnetic field therapy (PMF) can all, when used properly, assist in treating orthopedic injuries, neurological conditions, and chronic conditions brought about by normal aging in our small animal companions. TU uses sound waves to produce both thermal and nonthermal effects that aid in tissue healing, repair, and function. TENS uses different frequencies of electrical current to decrease pain and inflammation. NMES also uses an electrical current to stimulate muscle contraction to assist in normal neuromuscular function in postorthopedic and neurological injuries. LLLT uses light energy to reduce pain, decrease inflammation, and stimulate healing at a cellular level. PMF uses magnetic field to stimulate normal cellular ion exchange and oxygen utilization and promote generalized healing of tissues. These modalities are discussed in detail covering mechanism of action, parameters, settings, and indications/contraindications of use in our small animals. Although these modalities are important in the physical rehabilitation of small animals, they need to be incorporated with a proper diagnosis, manual therapy, and home exercise program into a specific and individualized patient treatment protocol.

Comparisons of the effects of acupuncture, electroacupuncture, and transcutaneous cranial electrical stimulation on the minimum alveolar concentration of isoflurane in dogs.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the effects of acupuncture (AP), electroacupuncture (EA), and transcutaneous cranial electrical stimulation (TCES) with high-frequency intermittent currents on the minimum alveolar concentration (MAC) of isoflurane and associated cardiovascular variables in dogs. ANIMALS: 8 healthy adult female Beagles. PROCEDURE: Each dog was anesthetized with isoflurane on 4 occasions, allowing a minimum of 10 days between experiments. Isoflurane MAC values were determined for each dog without treatment (controls) and after treatment with AP and EA (AP points included the Large Intestine 4, Lung 7, Governing Vessel 20, Governing Vessel 14, San Tai, and Baihui) and TCES. Isoflurane MAC values were determined by use of noxious electrical buccal stimulation. Heart rate, mean arterial blood pressure (MAP), arterial blood oxygen saturation (Spo2) measured by use of pulse oximetry, esophageal body temperature, inspired and expired end-tidal isoflurane concentrations, end-tidal carbon dioxide concentration, and bispectral index (BIS) were monitored. Blood samples were collected for determination of plasma cortisol concentration. RESULTS: Mean +/- SD baseline MAC of isoflurane was 1.19 +/- 0.1%. Acupuncture did not significantly change MAC of isoflurane. Treatments with EA and TCES significantly lowered the MAC of isoflurane by 10.1% and 13.4%, respectively. The Spo2, heart rate, MAP, BIS, esophageal body temperature, and plasma cortisol concentration were not significantly different after AP, EA, TCES, and control treatments at any time interval. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Use of EA and TCES decreased MAC of isoflurane in dogs without inducing adverse hemodynamic effects. However, the reduction in isoflurane MAC by EA andTCES treatments was not considered clinically relevant.

Effects of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation on the fatty acid profile of rabbit longissimus dorsi muscle (preliminary report).

This study was designed to investigate whether transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) of the longissimus dorsi muscle (MLD) of rabbits induces specific proportional changes in the muscle fatty acid composition. Ten 4-week-old Pannon White rabbits were exposed to TENS treatment two times a day, with the following settings: 30 Hz, 20 micros impulse length, 10 mA, 2 x 20 min. After a treatment period of 50 days rabbits were slaughtered and the fatty acid composition of the MLD was determined by gas chromatography. The TENS treatment increased the proportions of linoleic (C18:2 n-6), linolenic (C18:3 n-3) and gondoic acids (C20:1 n-9), compared with the control group. The level of palmitic (C16:0), stearic (C18:0), oleic (C18:1 n-9) and eicosapentaenoic (C20:5 n-3) acids significantly decreased. The proportion of total unsaturated fatty acids significantly increased. On the basis of the results obtained, TENS may have similar effects on the muscle fatty acid profile like physical training. Based on the supposal that the composition of membrane structure was also affected, the electrical stimulation of muscles may have further consequences, e.g. on membrane properties.

Comparison of sensory nerve conduction velocities in horses versus ponies.

Normal sensory nerve conduction velocity (SNCV) values in 8 ponies and 8 horses were compared by use of a percutaneous signal-averaging technique. Nerve fibers evaluated included those in the medial and lateral palmar and plantar digital nerves. Mean SNCV values were significantly slower (P less than 0.0002) for horses, compared with those values for ponies. Animal height and nerve segment length were inversely related to SNCV consistently. The SNCV values were affected by surface skin temperature by a factor of approximately 1.2 m/s change for 1 degree C change in temperatures from 35 C. The ability to calculate warning limits to define those SNCV values in normal and abnormal ranges were developed from these data for both ponies and horses.

The use of electronarcosis as anaesthetic in the cichlid, Oreochromis mossambicus (Peters). I. General experimental procedures and the role of fish length on the narcotizing effects of electric currents.

Procedures to narcotize fish by means of alternating or direct electrical currents are described and a method of evaluating the narcotic effects on fish of electrical currents is detailed. The role of fish length on the narcotizing potential of electrical currents was investigated. The results indicate that there is a positive correlation between fish length and the duration of narcosis.

Electro-immobilisation of sheep may not reduce the aversiveness of a painful treatment.

Sheep were repeatedly chased down a race and were then either subjected to the noise of a shearing handpiece or had wool shaved off. An increase in the time that had to be spent pushing the sheep down the race indicated that the latter treatment was aversive. Similar results were obtained when the sheep were subjected to the same two treatments while electro-immobilised. This throws doubt on the analgesic effectiveness of electro-immobilisation.

Humaneness of an electroimmobilization unit for cattle.

Application of an electroimmobilization unit was evaluated in adult Holstein cows. Twenty cows were acclimated to being led from their stanchion, down a corridor, and into a set of stocks. After the first 7 sessions when the cows were exposed to a conditioning stimulus, cows were assigned to 4 groups of 5. One group served as a control group, 2 groups were given a high or low stimulus with the electroimmobilizer immediately after the conditioning stimulus, and 1 group was given saline solution IM. These stimulus treatments were repeated 10 times, followed by an extinction trial of 10 sessions when stimulus treatments were stopped. The time taken to enter the stocks, the heart rate before and after treatment was given, and an assessment of the physical reaction were used as measurements of the response of each cow. At the end of the stimulus treatment phase, cows in high- or low-stimulus groups had significantly greater (P less than 0.05) reluctance to enter the stocks and had higher heart rates during the period before they were given the stimulus. These cows also had significantly greater (P less than 0.05) physical reaction than did cows in the control group and the group given the IM injection. Cows given the IM injection demonstrated significantly (P less than 0.05) greater physical reaction than did cows in the control group. Seemingly, electroimmobilization was a noxious event and was more noxious than a simple IM injection.