Neurological examination of clinically healthy pigeons (Columba livia domestica), mute swans (Cygnus olor), common buzzards (Buteo buteo), common kestrels (Falco tinnunculus) and northern goshawks (Accipiter gentilis).

BACKGROUND: A neurological examination is essential for determining the localisation of neurological lesions. However, in avian species, quantitative data regarding the practicability and feasibility of neurological tests are very limited. Therefore, the aim of this study was to establish normative data for the neurological examination of clinically healthy birds of different species. METHODS: Forty-two domestic and feral pigeons (Columba livia domestica), 42 mute swans (Cygnus olor), 12 common buzzards (Buteo buteo), 24 common kestrels (Falco tinnunculus) and six northern goshawks (Accipiter gentilis) were examined. All birds underwent a predefined neurological examination. Interobserver variations between three examiners were investigated in 11 pigeons and 11 mute swans. RESULTS: All postural reaction tests, except for the drop and flap reaction in mute swans, provoked a consistent response in pigeons and mute swans, whereas postural reaction tests of the legs in raptors were often not performable. Cranial nerve tests and most of the spinal reflexes revealed variable responses in all birds. The gastrocnemius reflex was not provokable in any bird. Interobserver agreement was almost perfect (Gwet's AC1 coefficient ≥0.81) for 16 of 21 parameters in the examination in pigeons and for 14 of 21 in mute swans. LIMITATIONS: The inclusion of free-ranging birds, which were not used to handling and for which limited information regarding age, history of previous diseases, etc. was available, may have influenced the results. CONCLUSION: The normative neurological examination data provided in this study will help improve clinicians' interpretation of neurological examination results in the respective bird species.

Neurologic Assessment and Critical Care of Exotic Animals: Approach to the Neurologic Exam, Species Differences, Prognostic Scales, Commonly Encountered Conditions, Ancillary Diagnostic Tests, and Caring for Neurologically Impaired Patients.

Many disorders of other body systems have been well characterized in exotic species; however, data regarding neurologic conditions is limited. Across some of these species, correlates between feline and canine neurology can be made, but variations in the nervous system anatomy make evaluation more challenging. With accurate neurolocalization a focused list of differential diagnoses can be created. Performing the neurologic examination should be methodical for all patients, and the order and extent of examination may depend upon the patient's clinical condition and cooperation. Applications of objective scale measures (such as coma scales), and ancillary diagnostics (electrodiagnostics, advanced imaging, biopsy techniques, and BAER testing) complement physical assessment and clinicopathologic assessment in these neurologic patients. Once a neurolocalization, likely diagnosis, and prognosis have been established, specific considerations for hospitalization and care of neurologic patients can be implemented while treatment is instituted.

Neurological Examination of Horses.

The neurological examination is undertaken to determine whether any deficit is due to a lesion in the nervous system and, if so, where within the nervous system any possible lesion or lesions are located. The examination of horses has challenges not encountered when doing the equivalent examination in dogs and cats, principally that spinal reflexes and postural reactions are impossible/difficult to assess in most animals. The anatomy book can be consulted later but at the end of the neurological examination the clinician then should be able to determine broadly which area of the neuromuscular systems is affected.

Neurological examination in healthy adult inland bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps).

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate neurological tests and expected results in inland bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps) and generate recommendations for bearded dragon-specific neurological examination. ANIMALS: 26 healthy adult inland bearded dragons. PROCEDURES: A complete neurological examination utilizing tests described in both mammals and reptiles was performed on each lizard, and test feasibility and outcome were recorded. RESULTS: Tests with poor feasibility included oculocardiac reflex (successfully completed in 62% [16/26] of animals) and voluntary ambulation and swallowing by use of a food item (0% [0/26] of animals). Tests with outcomes considered abnormal in mammals but attributable to normal bearded dragon behavior included head position (head tilt present in 12% [3/26]) and head movement (head bob present in 4% [1/26]). Many tests had absent or inconsistent outcomes, including menace response (present in 19% [5/26]), proprioceptive positioning (present in 4% [1/26] in the thoracic limbs and 0% [0/26] in the pelvic limbs), vent reflex (present in 27% [7/26]), and myotatic reflexes (biceps present in 8% [2/26]; patellar, gastrocnemius, and triceps present in 0% [0/26]). Extensor postural thrust was absent in all successfully tested animals, but a novel reflex termed the caudal thoracic extensor reflex was noted instead in all observed animals (100% [21/21]). CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Tests with poor feasibility or inconsistent outcomes should have low priority or be excluded from neurological examinations of inland bearded dragons. Normal behaviors should be considered for head position and movement. A bearded dragon-specific neurological examination protocol derived from these findings is described and recommended in order to decrease stress and improve neurolocalization.

Neurologic examination of healthy adult African pygmy hedgehogs (Atelerix albiventris).

OBJECTIVE: To describe a modified approach to neurologic examination of African pygmy hedgehogs (Atelerix albiventris). ANIMALS: 12 adult hedgehogs (7 males and 5 females). PROCEDURES: Aspects of the standard neurologic examination of dogs and cats were evaluated for use with awake hedgehogs, and modified approaches to evaluating their normal behavior and mentation, select cranial nerves and refexes, and gait were then identified. Behavioral analysis and gait analysis were performed by using video recordings of hedgehogs in a novel environment. Performability and repeatability of all feasible aspects of the neurologic examination were assessed. RESULTS: Most aspects of the standard neurologic examination could be successfully performed, with repeatable results. However, certain aspects, especially those evaluating the pelvic limbs, were more difficult to perform successfully or were less repeatable. All hedgehogs lacked a menace response but displayed a contraction of the frontodorsalis muscle. Facial sensation testing was unreliable. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The entire standard neurologic examination could not be performed in hedgehogs. However, many aspects could be performed, and together they provided baseline data for neurologic examination of this species.

Neurologic Causes of Thoracic Limb Lameness.

Although lameness of the thoracic limb typically is due to orthopedic disease, there are several important neurologic conditions that result in lameness. Neurologic diseases cause lameness due to disease of the nerves, nerve roots, spinal cord, or muscles. Common differentials include lateralized intervertebral disc extrusions, caudal cervical spondylomyelopathy (wobbler disease), brachial plexus avulsion, neuritis, and peripheral nerve sheath tumors. Many of these diseases compress or destroy the nerve roots of the cervical intumescence, resulting in non-weight-bearing lameness, or root signature. Advanced diagnostics, such as magnetic resonance imaging, are necessary in these cases to determine the underlying cause.

Assessment of Orthopedic Versus Neurologic Causes of Gait Change in Dogs and Cats.

Diagnosis of forelimb lameness may be challenging, as it not only can be due to multiple common orthopedic diseases but also may occasionally be caused by neurologic disease. A thorough orthopedic and neurologic examination is key to determining which disease category is the likely culprit. Deficits identified on the neurologic examination, such as proprioceptive deficits, changes in reflexes, and presence of spinal hyperesthesia, are key in identifying neurologic causes of forelimb lameness.

Efficacy of autologous bone marrow mononuclear cell transplantation in dogs with chronic spinal cord injury.

Background: Spinal cord injury (SCI) is relatively common in dogs and is a devastating condition involving loss of sensory neurons and motor neurons. However, the main clinical protocol for the management of SCI is surgery to decompress and stabilize the vertebra. Cell transplantation therapy is a very promising strategy for the treatment of chronic SCI, but extensive preclinical and clinical research work remains. Aim: The aim of this study is to confirm the effect of bone marrow-derived mononuclear cell (BM-MNC) transplantation for chronic SCI in dogs. Methods: We tested the treatment efficiency of chronic SCI in 12 dogs using BM-MNC transplantation. Neurological evaluation used the Texas Spinal Cord Injury Scale (TSCIS). Concurrently, we characterized the transplanted cells by evaluation using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction, flow cytometry, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Result: All dogs had a pre-transplantation TSCIS score of 0. Two animals did not show any improvement in their final TSCIS scores. The remaining 10 dogs (83.4%) achieved improvement in the final TSCIS scores. Five of them (41.7%) regained ambulatory function with a TSCIS score greater than 10. We determined that canine BM-MNCs expressed hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) mRNA at higher levels than other cytokines, with significant increases in HGF levels in cerebrospinal fluid within 48 hours after autologous BM-MNC transplantation into the subarachnoid space of the spinal dura matter in dogs. Conclusions: BM-MNC transplantation may be effective for at least some cases of chronic SCI.

Neurobehavioral Disorders: The Corticolimbic System in Health and Disease.

The corticolimbic system (prefrontal cortices, amygdala, and hippocampus) integrates emotion with cognition and produces a behavioral output that is flexible based on the environmental circumstances. It also modulates pain, being implicated in pathophysiology of maladaptive pain. Because of the anatomic and function overlap between corticolimbic circuitry for pain and emotion, the pathophysiology for maladaptive pain conditions is extremely complex. Addressing environmental needs and underlying triggers is more important than pharmacotherapy when dealing with feline orofacial pain syndrome or feline hyperesthesia syndrome. By contrast, autoimmune limbic encephalitis requires prompt diagnosis and management with immunosuppression and seizure control.