Insight into the Mechanism Underlying Dehalococcoides mccartyi Strain CBDB1-Mediated B12-Dependent Aromatic Reductive Dehalogenation.

Anaerobic bacteria transform aromatic halides through reductive dehalogenation. This dehalorespiration is catalyzed by the supernucleophilic coenzyme vitamin B12, cob(I)alamin, in reductive dehalogenases. So far, the underlying inner-sphere electron transfer (ET) mechanism has been discussed controversially. In the present study, all 36 chloro-, bromo-, and fluorobenzenes and full-size cobalamin are analyzed at the quantum chemical density functional theory level with respect to a wide range of theoretically possible inner-sphere ET mechanisms. The calculated reaction free energies within the framework of CoI···X (X = F, Cl, and Br) attack rule out most of the inner-sphere pathways. The only route with feasible energetics is a proton-coupled two-ET mechanism that involves a B12 side-chain tyrosine (modeled by phenol) as a proton donor. For 12 chlorobenzenes and 9 bromobenzenes with experimental data from Dehalococcoides mccartyi strain CBDB1, the newly proposed PC-TET mechanism successfully discriminates 16 of 17 active from 4 inactive substrates and correctly predicts the observed regiospecificity to 100%. Moreover, fluorobenzenes are predicted to be recalcitrant in agreement with experimental findings. Conceptually, based on the Bell-Evans-Polanyi principle, the computational approach provides novel mechanistic insights and may serve as a tool for predicting the energetic feasibility of reductive aromatic dehalogenation.

Enhancing neuronal chloride extrusion rescues α2/α3 GABAA-mediated analgesia in neuropathic pain.

Spinal disinhibition has been hypothesized to underlie pain hypersensitivity in neuropathic pain. Apparently contradictory mechanisms have been reported, raising questions on the best target to produce analgesia. Here, we show that nerve injury is associated with a reduction in the number of inhibitory synapses in the spinal dorsal horn. Paradoxically, this is accompanied by a BDNF-TrkB-mediated upregulation of synaptic GABAARs and by an α1-to-α2GABAAR subunit switch, providing a mechanistic rationale for the analgesic action of the α2,3GABAAR benzodiazepine-site ligand L838,417 after nerve injury. Yet, we demonstrate that impaired Cl- extrusion underlies the failure of L838,417 to induce analgesia at high doses due to a resulting collapse in Cl- gradient, dramatically limiting the benzodiazepine therapeutic window. In turn, enhancing KCC2 activity not only potentiated L838,417-induced analgesia, it rescued its analgesic potential at high doses, revealing a novel strategy for analgesia in pathological pain, by combined targeting of the appropriate GABAAR-subtypes and restoring Cl- homeostasis.

Aerobic degradation of 2- and 3-fluoroaniline in mixed culture systems and microbial community analysis.

Among three monofluoroanilines, 2-fluoroaniline (2-FA) and 3-fluoroaniline (3-FA) exhibit relatively poor biodegradability. This work examined their degradation characteristics in a mixed culture system and also analyzed the microorganism community. After acclimation for 58 d and 43 d, the high removal efficiency of 100% of 2-FA and 95.3% of 3-FA was obtained by adding 25 mg L-1 of 2-FA or 3-FA to the two reactors, respectively. In addition, the high defluorination rates of 2-FA and 3-FA were observed to be 87.0% and 89.3%, respectively. The degradation kinetics showed that the maximum specific degradation rates of 2-FA and 3-FA were (21.23 ± 0.91) mg FA (g•VSS·h)-1, and (11.75 ± 0.99) mg FA (g•VSS·h)-1, respectively. PCR-DGGE analysis revealed that the unique bacteria degrading 2-FA were mainly composed of six genera (Novosphingobium, Bradyrhizobium, Aquaspirillum, Aminobacter, Ochrobactrum, and Labrys), and five genera that degraded 3-FA (Ochrobactrum, Aquaspirillum, Lachnobacterium, Bradyrhizobium, and Variovorax). Analysis of the key catabolic enzyme activities indicated that the simultaneous hydroxylation and dehalogenation were involved in monooxygenase elimination of 2-FA and conversion of 3-FA to 4-fluorocatechol by dioxygenase, indicating that enriched mixed cultures were effective to metabolize 2-FA or 3-FA by unconventional pathways to prevent the accumulation of toxic metabolites.

Metabolism of metofluthrin in rats: I. Identification of metabolites.

1. Metofluthrin (2,3,5,6-tetrafluoro-4-(methoxymethyl)benzyl (Z/E)-(1R)-trans-2,2-dimethyl-3-(1-propenyl)-cyclopropanecarboxylate) is a novel pyrethroid insecticide, which has E/Z isomers at prop-1-enyl group. 2. Rats were orally dosed with each [14C]-labelled E/Z isomer, and the excreta were collected for isolation and identification of metabolites. Analysis of the excreta by LC/MS and NMR revealed formation of 33 and 23 (total 42) metabolites from rats dosed with Z-isomer and E-isomer, respectively. 3. Major metabolic reactions were cleavage of ester linkage, O-demethylation, hydroxylation, epoxidation or reduction of double bond, glutathione conjugation and its further metabolism, hydroxylation of epoxide and formation of lactone ring. Notably, the acid side, 2,2-dimethyl-3-(1-propenyl)-cyclopropanecarboxylic acid, was much more variously metabolised compared to chrysanthemic acid, the acid side of the known pyrethroids. 4. Major metabolites for Z-isomer mostly retained ester linkage with 1,2-dihydroxypropyl group and/or 2-methylalcohol of cyclopropane ring, while most of those for E-isomer received hydrolysis of the ester linkage without oxidation at the 1-propenyl group or the gem-methyl groups, suggesting epoxidation and hydroxylation could occur more easily on Z-isomer. 5. As the novel metabolic pathways for pyrethroids, isomerisation of ω-carboxylic acid moiety, reduction or hydration of double bond and cleavage of cyclopropane ring via epoxidation were suggested.

Metabolism of metofluthrin in rats: II. Excretion, distribution and amount of metabolites.

1. 14 C-Labelled E/Z isomers of a synthetic pyrethroid metofluthrin ((E/Z)-(1 R,3 R)-2,3,5,6-tetrafluoro-4-(methoxymethyl)benzyl 2,2-dimethyl-3-(1-propenyl)-cyclopropanecarboxylate, abbreviated as RTE/RTZ, respectively) were used for rat metabolism studies. 14 C-RTE or RTZ labelled at the carbonyl-carbon [acid-14C] or the methoxymethylbenzyl-α-carbon [alcohol-14 C] was administered orally to rats at 1 and 20 mg/kg. 2. Dosed compounds were mostly absorbed, metabolised, and rapidly excreted. Dose-related increase in blood AUC suggested no saturation of absorption at the high dose. Blood 14 C was maximal at 3-8 h and decreased with a half-life of 52-163 h. Radioactivity in tissues, blood and plasma decreased basically at the same rate and the sum fell below 0.2% of the dose at 168 h. 3. Although the major metabolic pathways of the isomers, that is, ester cleavage, O-demethylation and ω-oxidation, were similar, there was a notable difference. The RTZ double bond commonly undergoes epoxidation while RTE double bond mainly undergoes glutathione conjugation, which causes faster elimination from plasma and greater excretion into faeces on RTE. Faster urinary excretion and elimination from blood were observed for the alcohol moiety than the acid moiety. 4. In conclusion, this study described the overall metabolic profiles of metofluthrin and identified the differences in metabolic breakdown between the isomers. No marked sex-/dose-related differences were observed.

Human SR-BII mediates SAA uptake and contributes to SAA pro-inflammatory signaling in vitro and in vivo.

Serum amyloid A (SAA) is an acute phase protein with cytokine-like and chemotactic properties, that is markedly up-regulated during various inflammatory conditions. Several receptors, including FPRL-1, TLR2, TLR4, RAGE, class B scavenger receptors, SR-BI and CD36, have been identified as SAA receptors. This study provides new evidence that SR-BII, splice variant of SR-BI, could function as an SAA receptor mediating its uptake and pro-inflammatory signaling. The uptake of Alexa Fluor488 SAA was markedly (~3 fold) increased in hSR-BII-expressing HeLa cells when compared with mock-transfected cells. The levels of SAA-induced interleukin-8 secretion by hSR-BII-expressing HEK293 cells were also significantly (~3-3.5 fold) higher than those detected in control cells. Moderately enhanced levels of phosphorylation of all three mitogen-activated protein kinases, ERK1/2, and p38 and JNK, were observed in hSR-BII-expressing cells following SAA stimulation when compared with control wild type cells. Transgenic mice with pLiv-11-directed liver/kidney overexpression of hSR-BI or hSR-BII were used to assess the in vivo role of each receptor in SAA-induced pro-inflammatory response in these organs. Six hours after intraperitoneal SAA injection both groups of transgenic mice demonstrated markedly higher (~2-5-fold) expression levels of inflammatory mediators in the liver and kidney compared to wild type mice. Histological examinations of hepatic and renal tissue from SAA-treated mice revealed moderate level of damage in the liver of both transgenic but not in the wild type mice. Activities of plasma transaminases, biomarkers of liver injury, were also moderately higher in hSR-B transgenic mice when compared to wild type mice. Our findings identify hSR-BII as a functional SAA receptor that mediates SAA uptake and contributes to its pro-inflammatory signaling via the MAPKs-mediated signaling pathways.

Contact Bioassays with Phenoxybenzyl and Tetrafluorobenzyl Pyrethroids against Target-Site and Metabolic Resistant Mosquitoes.

BACKGROUND: Mosquito strains that exhibit increased tolerance to the chemical class of compounds with a sodium channel modulator mode of action (pyrethroids and pyrethrins) are typically described as "pyrethroid resistant". Resistance to pyrethroids is an increasingly important challenge in the control of mosquito-borne diseases, such as malaria or dengue, because one of the main interventions (the distribution of large numbers of long-lasting insecticide-treated bed nets) currently relies entirely on long-lasting pyrethroids. Increasing tolerance of target insects against this class of insecticides lowers their impact in vector control. The current study suggests that the level of metabolic resistance depends on the structure of the molecule and that structurally different compounds may still be effective because detoxifying enzymes are unable to bind to these uncommon structures. METHODS: Treated surface contact bioassays were performed on susceptible Aedes aegypti, East African knockdown resistance (kdr) Anopheles gambiae (strain RSP-H) and metabolically resistant Anopheles funestus (strain FUMOZ-R) with different pyrethroids, such as cypermethrin, ß-cyfluthrin, deltamethrin, permethrin and transfluthrin (alone and in combination with the synergist piperonyl butoxide). The nonfluorinated form of transfluthrin was also assessed as a single agent and in combination with piperonyl butoxide. RESULTS: Although the dosages for pyrethroids containing a phenoxybenzyl moiety have exhibited differences in terms of effectiveness among the three tested mosquito species, the structurally different transfluthrin with a polyfluorobenzyl moiety remained active in mosquitoes with upregulated P450 levels. In trials with transfluthrin mixed with piperonyl butoxide, the added synergist exhibited no efficacy-enhancing effect. CONCLUSION: The results of this study suggest that transfluthrin has the potential to control P450-mediated metabolically resistant mosquitoes because the structural formula of transfluthrin differs from that of the tested pyrethroids, which are used in vector control. The P450-detoxifying enzymes of the Anopheles funestus FUMOZ-R mosquitoes seem to bind preferably at the phenoxybenzyl moiety and appear to be unable to degrade transfluthrin with its tetrafluorobenzyl moiety. Inhibition of the class of monooxygenases by piperonyl butoxide revealed no increase of efficacy of the pure transfluthrin compound, which also indicates that the P450 enzymes potentially do not impact the efficacy of transfluthrin.

Simultaneous determination of hyzetimibe and its main active metabolite in plasma by LC-MS/MS and its application in PK study.

BACKGROUND: Hyzetimibe is a new compound belonging to a novel class of selective cholesterol absorption inhibitors. A simple, highly sensitive LC-MS/MS method has been developed for the quantification of hyzetimibe and its main active metabolite, hyzetimibe-glucuronide, in human plasma. RESULTS: Analytical samples were prepared using a protein precipitation method coupled with a concentration process. The linearity of this method was established for concentrations in the ranges of 0.05-50 and 0.5-500 ng/ml for hyzetimibe and hyzetimibe-glucuronide, respectively. The accuracy and precision of the method varied from 97.9 to 105% and 2.6 to 7.4%, respectively. CONCLUSION: This study represents the first reported example of an LC-MS/MS assay for the simultaneous quantification of hyzetimibe and its main active metabolite, hyzetimibe-glucuronide, in human plasma. Furthermore, this method has been successfully applied to a PK study.

Rosuvastatin improves hepatopulmonary syndrome through inhibition of inflammatory angiogenesis of lung.

The hepatopulmonary syndrome (HPS) is characterized by hypoxia and increased intrapulmonary shunts in cirrhotic patients. Emerging evidence showed promising results of treating HPS by abolishment of intrapulmonary inflammation and angiogenesis. Rosuvastatin is a kind of 3-hydroxy-methyl-3-glutamyl coenzyme A reductase inhibitor. In addition to lipid-lowering effects, it has anti-inflammation and anti-angiogenesis properties. We postulated that rosuvastatin treatment can ameliorate HPS. Common bile duct ligation (CBDL) was applied in an experimental HPS animal model. CBDL rats received 2-week rosuvastatin (20 mg/kg/day) treatments from the fifteenth day after operation. The haemodynamic data, blood gas analysis, liver biochemistries, tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) were examined after rosuvastatin treatment. The liver and lung tissues were dissected for histopathological studies and protein analyses. In the parallel groups, intrapulmonary shunts were determined. The haemodynamic and liver biochemistries were not changed after rosuvastatin treatment in CBDL rats, but the alveolar-arterial oxygen pressure gradient was significantly decreased, implying that HPS-induced hypoxia was reversed after rosuvastatin treatment. In addition, rosuvastatin treatment reduced intrapulmonary shunts and plasma levels of VEGF and TNF-α. Besides, the intrapulmonary protein expression of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), VEGF receptor (VEGFR)-1,2 and Rho-associated A kinase were significantly down-regulated and the intrapulmonary angiogenesis was ameliorated. We concluded that rosuvastatin alleviates experimental HPS through blockade of pulmonary inflammatory angiogenesis via TNF-α/NF-κB and VEGF/Rho-associated A kinase pathways down-regulation.

Inhibition of N-type calcium channels by fluorophenoxyanilide derivatives.

A set of fluorophenoxyanilides, designed to be simplified analogues of previously reported ω-conotoxin GVIA mimetics, were prepared and tested for N-type calcium channel inhibition in a SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma FLIPR assay. N-type or Cav2.2 channel is a validated target for the treatment of refractory chronic pain. Despite being significantly less complex than the originally designed mimetics, up to a seven-fold improvement in activity was observed.

Evaluation of rosuvastatin as an organic anion transporting polypeptide (OATP) probe substrate: in vitro transport and in vivo disposition in cynomolgus monkeys.

Organic anion transporting polypeptides (OATPs) mediate hepatic drug uptake and serve as the loci of drug-drug interactions (DDIs). Consequently, there is a major need to develop animal models and refine in vitro-in vivo extrapolations. Therefore, the in vivo disposition of a model OATP substrate, [(3)H]rosuvastatin (RSV), was studied in the cynomolgus monkey and reported for the first time. After monkeys had received a 3-mg/kg oral dose, mass balance was achieved after bile duct cannulation (mean total recovery of radioactivity of 103.6%). Forty-two percent of the RSV dose was recovered in urine and bile, and the elimination pathways were similar to those reported for human subjects; 61.7%, 39.0%, and 2.9% of the dose was recovered in the feces, bile, and urine, respectively. The high levels of unchanged RSV recovered in urine and bile (26% of the dose) and the relatively low levels of metabolites observed indicated that RSV was eliminated largely by excretion. Also, for the first time, the in vitro inhibitory potential of cyclosporin A (CsA) toward cynomolgus monkey OATPs and sodium-taurocholate cotransporting polypeptide was studied in vitro (primary hepatocytes and transporter-transfected cells). It is concluded that one can study the CsA-RSV DDI in the cynomolgus monkey. For example, the in vitro IC50 values were within 2-fold (monkey versus human), and the increase (versus vehicle control) in the RSV AUC0-inf (6.3-fold) and Cmax (10.2-fold) with CsA (100 mg/kg) was similar to that reported for humans. The results further support the use of the cynomolgus monkey as a model to assess interactions involving OATP inhibition.

Organic anion transporting polypeptide-mediated transport of, and inhibition by, asunaprevir, an inhibitor of hepatitis C virus NS3 protease.

Asunaprevir (ASV), an investigational, highly protein-bound inhibitor of hepatitis C virus NS3 protease, shows considerable hepatic compartmentalization in animal models. Preclinical data showed ASV inhibition of human OATP1B1 (IC50 = 0.3 µM), OATP2B1 (0.27 µM), and, to a lesser extent OATP1B3 (3.0 µM), confirmed by modest (<2-fold) clinical elevations in rosuvastatin exposure with concomitant ASV. Although no significant OATP transport of ASV was observed in vitro at standard micromolar assay concentrations, clinical coadministration of ASV with a single dose of the OATP inhibitor rifampin gave large, variable increases in ASV plasma Cmax (21-fold mean) and AUCinf (15-fold mean), consistent with reduced hepatic uptake. In vitro reevaluation at therapeutically relevant low-nanomolar concentrations of unbound ASV showed active, saturable human hepatocyte uptake (Km = 0.685 µM) and rifampin-reversible transport by OATP1B1 and OATP2B1, but not OATP1B3. At therapeutically relevant concentrations, ASV is therefore a sensitive substrate for, and weak inhibitor of, human OATP1B1, 1B3 and 2B1.

New, non-quinone fluorogeldanamycin derivatives strongly inhibit Hsp90.

Streptomyces hygroscopicus is a natural producer of geldanamycin. Mutasynthetic supplementation of an AHBA-blocked mutant with all possible monofluoro 3-aminobenzoic acids provided new fluorogeldanamycins. These showed strong antiproliferative activity and inhibitory effects on human heat shock protein Hsp90. Binding to Hsp90 in the low nanomolar range was determined from molecular modelling, AFM analysis and by calorimetric studies.

Degradation of benzotrifluoride via the dioxygenase pathway in Rhodococcus sp. 065240.

We previously isolated Rhodococcus sp. 065240, which catalyzes the defluorination of benzotrifluoride (BTF). In order to investigate the mechanism of this degradation of BTF, we performed proteomic analysis of cells grown with or without BTF. Three proteins, which resemble dioxygenase pathway enzymes responsible for isopropylbenzene degradation from Rhodococcus erythropolis BD2, were induced by BTF. Genomic PCR and DNA sequence analysis revealed that the Rhodococcus sp. 065240 carries the gene cluster, btf, which is highly homologous to the ipb gene cluster from R. erythropolis BD2. A mutant strain, which could not catalyze BTF defluorination, was isolated from 065240 strain by UV mutagenesis. The mutant strain had one mutation in the btfT gene, which encodes a response regulator of the two component system. The defluorinating ability of the mutant strain was recovered by complementation of btfT. These results suggest that the btf gene cluster is responsible for degradation of BTF.

The hepatobiliary disposition of timosaponin b2 is highly dependent on influx/efflux transporters but not metabolism.

The purpose of this study was to characterize the hepatobiliary disposition of timosaponin B2 (TB-2), a natural saponin. Although TB-2 has multiple pharmacologic activities, the mechanism of its hepatobiliary disposition has not been explored. Because the metabolism of TB-2 is limited and the accumulation of TB-2 in primary hepatocytes is highly temperature dependent (93% of its accumulation is due to active uptake), the contribution of hepatic transporters was investigated. Organic anion-transporting polypeptide (OATP) 1B1- and OATP1B3-transfected human embryonic kidney 293 cells were employed. TB-2 serves as a substrate for OATP1B1 and OATP1B3, with the former playing a predominant role in the hepatic uptake of TB-2. An inhibition study in sandwich-cultured rat hepatocytes suggested that TB-2 is a substrate for both breast cancer resistance protein (Bcrp) and multidrug resistance-associated protein 2 (Mrp2), consistent with its high biliary excretion index (43.1-44.9%). This hypothesis was further verified in BCRP and MRP2 membrane vesicles. The cooperation of uptake and efflux transporters in TB-2 hepatic disposition could partially explain the double-peak phenomenon observed in rat plasma and liver and biliary clearance, which accounted for 70% of the total TB-2 clearance. Moreover, TB-2 significantly increased the rosuvastatin concentration in rat plasma in a concentration-dependent manner and decreased its biliary excretion, which corresponded to reductions in rosuvastatin accumulation in hepatocytes and the biliary excretion index in sandwich-cultured rat hepatocytes, representing a perfect example of a potential saponin-statin drug-drug interaction. These studies demonstrate that transporters (Oatp, Bcrp/Mrp2), but not metabolism, contribute significantly to rat TB-2 hepatobiliary disposition.

Risk of adverse events among older adults following co-prescription of clarithromycin and statins not metabolized by cytochrome P450 3A4.

BACKGROUND: The cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) inhibitor clarithromycin may also inhibit liver-specific organic anion-transporting polypeptides (OATP1B1 and OATP1B3). We studied whether concurrent use of clarithromycin and a statin not metabolized by CYP3A4 was associated with an increased frequency of serious adverse events. METHODS: Using large health care databases, we studied a population-based cohort of older adults (mean age 74 years) who were taking a statin not metabolized by CYP3A4 (rosuvastatin [76% of prescriptions], pravastatin [21%] or fluvastatin [3%]) between 2002 and 2013 and were newly prescribed clarithromycin (n=51,523) or azithromycin (n=52,518), the latter an antibiotic that inhibits neither CYP3A4 nor OATP1B1 and OATP1B3. Outcomes were hospital admission with a diagnostic code for rhabdomyolysis, acute kidney injury or hyperkalemia, and all-cause mortality. All outcomes were assessed within 30 days after co-prescription. RESULTS: Compared with the control group, patients co-prescribed clarithromycin and a statin not metabolized by CYP3A4 were at increased risk of hospital admission with acute kidney injury (adjusted relative risk [RR] 1.65, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.31 to 2.09), admission with hyperkalemia (adjusted RR 2.17, 95% CI 1.22 to 3.86) and all-cause mortality (adjusted RR 1.43, 95% CI 1.15 to 1.76). The adjusted RR for admission with rhabdomyolysis was 2.27 (95% CI 0.86 to 5.96). The absolute increase in risk for each outcome was small and likely below 1%, even after we considered the insensitivity of some hospital database codes. INTERPRETATION: Among older adults taking a statin not metabolized by CYP3A4, co-prescription of clarithromycin versus azithromycin was associated with a modest but statistically significant increase in the 30-day absolute risk of adverse outcomes.

Bacteria detection based on the evolution of enzyme-generated volatile organic compounds: determination of Listeria monocytogenes in milk samples.

The rapid detection of Listeria monocytogenes contamination in food is essential to prevent food-borne illness in humans. The aim of this study was to differentiate non-contaminated milk from milk contaminated with L. monocytogenes using enzyme substrates coupled with the analysis of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). The method is based on the activity of ß-glucosidase and hippuricase enzymes and the detection of a specific VOC i.e. 2-nitrophenol and 3-fluoroaniline, respectively. VOCs were extracted, separated and detected by headspace-solid phase microextraction coupled to gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (HS-SPME GC-MS). This approach required the inclusion of the selective agent's cycloheximide, nalidixic acid and acriflavine HCl in the growth medium to inhibit interfering bacteria. The VOCs were liberated by L. monocytogenes provided that samples contained at least 1-1.5×10(2) CFU ml(-1) of milk prior to overnight incubation. This approach shows potential for future development as a rapid method for the detection of L. monocytogenes contaminated milk.

Toxicity and bioconcentration of the pharmaceuticals moxifloxacin, rosuvastatin, and drospirenone to the unionid mussel Lampsilis siliquoidea.

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) and their metabolites are continually released from wastewater treatment plants into the aquatic environment; however, their impact on aquatic biota is poorly understood. This study examined the toxicity and bioconcentration of three pharmaceuticals: moxifloxacin, rosuvastatin, and drospirenone to the unionid mussel Lampsilis siliquoidea. Effects of moxifloxacin and rosuvastatin were assessed through aqueous 21-d static-renewal tests using 2-year-old mussels, at 0.01, 0.1, 1, 10 and 100mg/L (nominal concentrations). Following exposure, survival, behavior, algal clearance rate, hemocyte viability and density, and glutathione S-transferase (GST) activity were assessed. In addition, the acute (48 h) toxicity of moxifloxacin (0-100mg/L) and drospirenone (0-3mg/L) to glochidia (larval mussels) were examined. In 21 day exposures (2-yr old mussels), there were no differences in survival, oxygen consumption, hemocyte density, or GST activity over the range of concentrations examined; however, the proportion of time mussels spent filtering, and consequently the algal clearance rate, decreased at the higher moxifloxacin and rosuvastatin concentrations. Bioconcentration factors (BCFs) ranged between 0.03 and 70 for moxifloxacin, and between 0 and 0.05 for rosuvastatin for exposures up to 100mg/L. The BCF for moxifloxacin at the highest exposure concentration was lower than that at the mid-level concentrations, likely due to decreased filtering activity at the higher exposure levels. The feeding rates declined and the amount of time the subadult mussels spent with their valves closed increased at the higher moxifloxacin and rosuvastatin exposures. Glochidia viability did not vary with exposure to drospirenone, but declined at the highest moxifloxacin concentration, resulting in an EC50 of 120 mg/L. Overall, observed sublethal and lethal effects occurred at concentrations which exceed expected environmental concentrations through aqueous exposure, suggesting a low risk to freshwater mussels from these particular PPCPs.

Evaluation of organic anion transporting polypeptide 1B1 and 1B3 humanized mice as a translational model to study the pharmacokinetics of statins.

Organic anion transporting polypeptide (Oatp) 1a/1b knockout and OATP1B1 and -1B3 humanized mouse models are promising tools for studying the roles of these transporters in drug disposition. Detailed characterization of these models will help to better understand their utility for predicting clinical outcomes. To advance this approach, we carried out a comprehensive analysis of these mouse lines by evaluating the compensatory changes in mRNA expression, quantifying the amounts of OATP1B1 and -1B3 protein by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry, and studying the active uptake in isolated hepatocytes and the pharmacokinetics of some prototypical substrates including statins. Major outcomes from these studies were 1) mostly moderate compensatory changes in only a few genes involved in drug metabolism and disposition, 2) a robust hepatic expression of OATP1B1 and -1B3 proteins in the respective humanized mouse models, and 3) functional activities of the human transporters in hepatocytes isolated from the humanized models with several substrates tested in vitro and with pravastatin in vivo. However, the expression of OATP1B1 and -1B3 in the humanized models did not significantly alter liver or plasma concentrations of rosuvastatin and pitavastatin compared with Oatp1a/1b knockout controls under the conditions used in our studies. Hence, although the humanized OATP1B1 and -1B3 mice showed in vitro and/or in vivo functional activity with some statins, further characterization of these models is required to define their potential use and limitations in the prediction of drug disposition and drug-drug interactions in humans.