Short communication: Levels of land use and land cover in Phoenix, Arizona are associated with elevated plasma triglycerides in the Gambel's Quail, Callipepla gambelii.

Gambel's Quail, Callipepla gambelii, are gregarious birds commonly found in the southwestern deserts of the United States and Northwestern Mexico. With expanding urbanization, these birds are often found in exurban and suburban areas where they have access to food sources that may differ from those used by birds living in rural habitats and, as a result, also differ morphologically and physiologically. To investigate this hypothesis, we compared the morphology and nutritional physiology of quail sampled at sites varying with respect to land use and cover. We hypothesized that quail living in more developed areas have access to a greater variety of and to more stable food resources, and predicted that morphology and nutritional physiology would be associated with degree of urbanization. We sampled adult birds at locations in the greater Phoenix metropolitan, Arizona (USA) area that vary with respect to land use and cover types. At the time of capture, birds were weighed and chest circumference was recorded. We also collected a blood sample from the jugular vein of each individual for analysis of plasma glucose, total proteins, triglycerides, and free glycerol. Consistent with the hypothesis, birds living in more developed environments had larger chest circumferences and higher circulating lipid concentrations than birds living in less developed areas, suggesting greater access to lipid-rich foods. In addition, the areal proportion of grass and lakes was negatively correlated to plasma free glycerol (r = -0.46, p = .031), and positively, but not significantly, correlated to plasma protein concentrations (r = 0.388, p = .073). These results suggest that quail living in areas with more grass have access to less dietary fats than urban birds. The findings are the first to indicate an association between urbanization and the morphology and nutritional physiology of Gambel's Quail, but further study using more and larger samples is needed before these findings can be generalized.

EVALUATION OF CELL PRESERVATIVES ON THE INTEGRITY OF ATTWATER'S PRAIRIE CHICKEN (TYMPANUCHUS CUPIDO ATTWATERI) WHOLE BLOOD SAMPLES OVER TIME.

The processing of blood samples can be delayed during health assessments of wildlife populations in distant locations. The use of whole blood preservatives may be useful in these situations. However, there is scant information regarding their use in nonmammalian species. This study tested the efficacy of two cell preservatives on whole blood collected from 12 Attwater's prairie chickens (Tympanuchus cupido attwateri). The preservatives used were Streck Cell Preservative© (SCP), a proprietary proteinaceous stabilizer developed for human flow cytology and validated in other mammalian species, and formalin, which is commonplace in histopathology, but its use in whole blood has been limited to fish. Grouped blood samples were treated with heparin, SCP, or formalin and analyzed at 0, 1, 4, and 7 days after collection for packed cell volume (PCV), complete blood count (CBC), and cellular morphology. SCP effectively preserved most cell types in Attwater's prairie chicken blood samples over a period of 7 days, with the exception of monocyte cell counts, which were significantly reduced from day 0. Formalin maintained total white blood cell counts at baseline levels measured by hemocytometer, but irregular staining characteristics prevented accurate analysis of differential counts or cellular morphology. Both preservatives altered PCV compared with the heparin control, but these values remained constant over time, highlighting the need for method-specific reference intervals. The validation of SCP in Attwater's prairie chickens supports its potential for use in other avian species for the collection of accurate hematologic data when the processing of blood samples may be delayed.

Snake C-Type Lectins Potentially Contribute to the Prey Immobilization in Protobothrops mucrosquamatus and Trimeresurus stejnegeri Venoms.

Snake venoms contain components selected to immobilize prey. The venoms from Elapidae mainly contain neurotoxins, which are critical for rapid prey paralysis, while the venoms from Viperidae and Colubridae may contain fewer neurotoxins but are likely to induce circulatory disorders. Here, we show that the venoms from Protobothrops mucrosquamatus and Trimeresurus stejnegeri are comparable to those of Naja atra in prey immobilization. Further studies indicate that snake C-type lectin-like proteins (snaclecs), which are one of the main nonenzymatic components in viper venoms, are responsible for rapid prey immobilization. Snaclecs (mucetin and stejnulxin) from the venoms of P. mucrosquamatus and T. stejnegeri induce the aggregation of both mammalian platelets and avian thrombocytes, leading to acute cerebral ischemia, and reduced animal locomotor activity and exploration in the open field test. Viper venoms in the absence of snaclecs fail to aggregate platelets and thrombocytes, and thus show an attenuated ability to cause cerebral ischemia and immobilization of their prey. This work provides novel insights into the prey immobilization mechanism of Viperidae snakes and the understanding of viper envenomation-induced cerebral infarction.

HEMATOLOGICAL REFERENCE INTERVALS OF ENDANGERED CAPTIVE BLACK-FRONTED PIPING-GUANS (ABURRIA JACUTINGA) IN THE STATE OF PARANÁ, BRAZIL.

The black-fronted piping-guan (Aburria jacutinga) is and an endangered cracid species and little is known about its health. Hematology allows researchers to assess the health and physiological status of a population, but, to our knowledge, reference intervals are not available in the literature for A. jacutinga. Thus, the present study aimed to determine the hematological reference intervals of 31 captive black-fronted pipingguan adults in the state of Paraná, Brazil. Blood samples were collected from brachial vein and stored in heparinized tubes to be processed. The red blood cell (RBC) and white blood cell (WBC) counts were performed in a hemocytometer, and hemoglobin (HGB) concentration was obtained by the spectrophotometric cyanmethemoglobin method; packed cell volume (PCV) was determined by microhematocrit technique, and the mean corpuscular volume (MCV) and mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC) were calculated according to a previously established formula. The heterophil : lymphocyte ratio was calculated by dividing the number of heterophils by the number of lymphocytes. Determination of the 95% reference intervals and 90% confidence intervals were performed in accordance with American Society for Veterinary Clinical Pathology guidelines using Reference Value Advisor (version 2.0). The results obtained were as follows: RBC, 1.4-2.8 × 106/µl; PCV, 34.3-51.2%; HGB, 8.0-12.6 g/dl; MCV, 157.3-261.4 fl; MCHC, 22.0-26.7 g/dl; WBC, 2.3-33.1 × 103/µl; heterophils, 12.1-16.3%, 0.5-14.4 × 103/µl; lymphocytes, 19.8-69.0%, 1.4-16.4 × 103/µl; monocytes, 0.7-17.3%, 0.1-2.8×103/µl; eosinophils, 0.4-12.8%, 0.0-3.9 × 103/µl; basophils, 0.8-12.0%, 0.0-1.9 × 103/µl; and the heterophil : lymphocyte ratio, 0.2-3.0. The present study fills gaps in the literature on hematological values for A. jacutinga, which can be used to assess the health of the species populations. In addition, it contributed to establishing the health status of captive black-fronted piping-guans, indicating the possible welfare of the birds.

Pharmacokinetics and bioavailability of danofloxacin in chukar partridge (Alectoris chukar) following intravenous, intramuscular, subcutaneous, and oral administrations.

The aim of the present study was to determine the pharmacokinetics (PKs) and bioavailability of danofloxacin in chukar partridge (Alectoris chukar) following intravenous (IV), intramuscular (IM), subcutaneous (SC), and oral (PO) administrations at a dose of 10 mg/kg. A total of eight clinically healthy chukar partridges weighing 480 ± 45 g were used for the investigation. The study was performed in a crossover design (2 × 2 × 2 × 2) with a 15-day washout period between two administrations in four periods. The plasma concentrations of danofloxacin were determined using reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography. Noncompartmental PK parameters were also estimated. No local or systemic adverse drug effects were observed in any of the chukar partridges. The mean elimination half-life ranged between 8.18 and 12.08 hr and differed statistically among administration routes. The mean peak plasma concentrations of danofloxacin following IM, SC, and PO administrations were 8.05, 9.58, and 3.39 µg/ml at 0.5, 1, and 4 hr, respectively. Following IM, SC, and PO administrations, the mean bioavailability was 86.33%, 134.40%, and 47.62%, respectively. The mean total clearance and volume of distribution at steady-state following IV administration were 0.13 L hr-1  kg-1 and 0.96 L/kg, respectively. These data, including favorable PKs and the absence of adverse drug effects, suggest that danofloxacin is a useful antibiotic in chukar partridges.

Effect of direct fed microbial in layer diets, on egg laying performance and health response of indigenous Ghanaian guinea fowls (Numida meleagris).

The aim of the present experiment was to examine the effect of direct fed microbial (DFM) on egg laying performance and health response of indigenous Ghanaian guinea fowls (Numida meleagris). A total of 216, 9-wk-old guinea keets (already sexed) were randomly assigned to 4 DFM administering treatments. These included control, daily, 3 consecutive days per week, and 7 d repeated every other week at 1.5 mL/L through water for 30 wk. Feed intake, body weight gain, feed conversion ratio, egg weight, yolk weight, egg albumen weight, shell weight, shell thickness, mortality, hematological and serum biochemical parameters were recorded. Birds on daily DFM treatment consumed the least feed (P = 0.007) with an increased weight gain (P = 0.009). Hen-day egg production, eggshell thickness and eggshell weight, albumen weight, albumen height, yolk weight, and yolk height were not different between treatments (P > 0.05). Egg weight was higher in daily supplementation of DFM in water than other treatments (P < 0.0001). Serum albumin was higher (P = 0.024) in daily DFM treatment, whereas serum low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol concentration was reduced (P = 0.017). The results showed that supplementing DFM daily at 1.5 mL/L of water resulted in increased total proteins and albumin as well as reduced LDL cholesterol. It could be concluded that these health indices increased the quality of guinea fowls eggs and may have improved the hatchability of eggs in the 1.5 mL/L DFM supplementation and there the supplementing DFM daily at 1.5 mL/L is recommended in Guinea fowls to increase hatchling numbers.

Histological structure and age-related changes in the luminal diameter of the excurrent duct system of guinea cocks (Numida meleagris) and associated changes in testosterone concentrations.

As little information is available on the reproductive system of guinea fowl (Numida meleagris), a study was conducted on 49 male guinea fowl to document the histological structure and developmental changes in the luminal diameter of the ducts within the excurrent duct system and associated changes in concentrations of testosterone. Age-related changes were analyzed using the Kruskal-Wallis test and medians separated by the Mann-Whitney U-test. Tubuli recti were clearly visible in the guinea fowl and the rete testes were both intracapsular and extracapsular. Regardless of age, the luminal diameter of the proximal ductuli efferentes was the largest, while that of the connecting duct was the smallest. The luminal diameter of all ducts within the epididymal region increased (P < 0.001) monthly until 20 wk of age, and then increased marginally every month thereafter. Peripheral testosterone concentrations also peaked at 20 wk of age and declined thereafter. In adult birds, the ductus deferens enlarged posteriorly, from an average of about 279 µm cranially to 678 µm caudally. Peripheral testosterone concentrations strongly and positively correlated with the luminal diameter of ducts within the excurrent duct system. The pattern of increase in the luminal diameter of all ducts followed the pattern of testosterone secretion in these birds, which indicates that testosterone concentrations may be closely related to the development of the excurrent duct system in male guinea fowl.

Étant donné le peu d'informations disponibles sur le système reproducteur de la pintade (Numida meleagridis), une étude a été menée sur 49 pintades mâles afin de documenter la structure histologique et les changements développementaux dans le diamètre de la lumière des tubes à l'intérieur du système de tubes excréteurs et les changements associés dans les concentrations de testostérone. Les changements associés à l'âge ont été analysés par le test de Kruskal-Wallis et les médianes séparées par le test de U de Mann-Whitney. Les tubes droits étaient clairement visibles chez les pintades et les rete testis étaient intracapsulaires et extracapsulaires. Indépendamment de l'âge, le diamètre de la lumière des canaux efférents était le plus large, alors que celui du canal connecteur était le plus petit. Le diamètre de la lumière de tous les canaux à l'intérieur de la région de l'épididyme a augmenté (P < 0,001) mensuellement jusqu'à 20 semaines d'âge, et augmenta par la suite de manière marginale à chaque mois. Les concentrations périphériques de testostérone ont également atteint un pic à 20 sem d'âge et ont décliné par la suite. Chez les oiseaux adultes, le canal déférent s'élargissait postérieurement, d'une moyenne d'environ 279 µm cranialement jusqu'à 678 µm caudalement. Les concentrations périphériques de testostérone corrélaient fortement et positivement avec le diamètre de la lumière des canaux dans le système de tubes excréteurs. Le patron de l'augmentation de la lumière de tous les canaux suivait le patron de sécrétion de testostérone chez ces oiseaux, ce qui indique que les concentrations de testostérone pourraient être intiment associées au développement du système de tubes excréteurs chez la pintade mâle.(Traduit par Docteur Serge Messier).

Male-to-female aggression in cage-housed common pheasants (Phasianus colchicus) during the breeding season was not related to male plasma testosterone level.

1. The aim of this study was to investigate if male-to-female aggression of common pheasants in the course of the breeding season was related to the concentration of plasma testosterone and/or other biochemical plasma indicators in male pheasants housed in breeding cages. The influence of season on the concentration of testosterone and biochemical indicators was also investigated. 2. Males were divided into non-aggressive and aggressive groups during the breeding season based on ethological evaluation. At the beginning, in the middle and at the end of the breeding season, a blood sample was taken from all males on the same day and the concentration of selected biochemical indicators and the total circulating testosterone in the plasma were determined. 3. Male-to-female aggression during the breeding season of pheasants was not influenced by the total plasma testosterone of males. 4. The concentration of total plasma testosterone in males decreased gradually during the breeding season. 5. Male-to-female aggression of pheasants did not have a significant effect on any of the assessed biochemical indicators. 6. The influence of the breeding season affected the activities of alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase as well as the concentrations of glucose, magnesium, potassium and chloride in the blood plasma of cage-housed male pheasants.

Serologic Surveillance of Wild and Pen-reared Ring-necked Pheasants ( Phasianus colchicus) as a Method of Understanding Disease Reservoirs.

We investigated exposure to infectious diseases in wild ( n=33) and pen-reared ( n=12) Ring-necked Pheasants ( Phasianus colchicus) in the Central Valley of California, US during 2014 and 2015. Serologic tests were positive for antibodies against hemorrhagic enteritis, infectious bursal disease, and Newcastle disease viruses in both wild and pen-reared pheasants.

Hematology and Serum Biochemistry Reference Intervals for Six-Week-Old, Farm-Reared Chinese Ring-Necked Pheasants ( Phasianus colchicus ) from Minnesota.

Chinese ring-necked pheasants ( Phasianus colchicus ) are commonly farmed in intensive operations for purposes such as meat production, hunting preserves, or research. Under these conditions, pheasants frequently suffer medical ailments such as bacterial, viral, and parasitic infections or nutritional or metabolic disorders. Relatively little scientific information exists regarding clinical pathology reference intervals (RIs) for farm-reared pheasants. The objective of this study was to determine RIs for hematologic and serum biochemical variables for Chinese ring-necked pheasants from Minnesota at 6 wk of age. Blood samples from 119 clinically healthy Chinese ring-necked pheasants were analyzed using standard techniques. Reference intervals were generated in Microsoft® Excel® 2013 (Microsoft, Redmond, WA) using Reference Value Advisor freeware version 2.1 (Microsoft). Ninety-five percent RIs were determined using nonparametric methods that followed Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute guidelines. These RIs will be useful for the monitoring of health and diagnosis of disease in confined Chinese ring-necked pheasant populations that are approximately 6 wk old.

Growth performance, blood profiles and carcass traits of Barbary partridge (Alectoris barbara) fed two different insect larvae meals (Tenebrio molitor and Hermetia illucens).

To investigate the effect of two insect meals (from Hermetia illucens, HI and Tenebrio molitor, TM larvae) on productive performance and blood profiles of Barbary partridge, ninety, seven days old partridges were divided into 5 groups (6 replicates, 3 partridges/replicate). Up to 64d, the groups fed 5 isoproteic and isoenergetic diets: the control fed a corn-soybean meal diet (SBM group); in TM25 and TM50 groups the 25 and 50% of SBM proteins were substituted by the protein from TM, respectively; in HI25 and HI50 groups the 25 and 50% of SBM were substituted by the protein from HI, respectively. The birds fed TM25 and both the HI levels reached a higher (P<0.01) live weight at 64d than the control. Considering the entire experimental period the TM groups had a more favorable FCR than SBM. The carcass weights of all the insect groups were higher (P<0.01) than the control. The weight of the full digestive tract in SBM group was the highest (P<0.01). The caecal weight, the intestinal and caecal length were the highest (P<0.01) in the SBM group. The SBM group the highest value of albumin/globulin (P<0.01) and creatinine (P<0.05). TM seems to be more effective than HI in improving FCR. The reduced albumin/globulin ratio in the insect meal fed groups could be ascribed to the chitin content and this result was not affected by the amount of chitin intake, suggesting that also the lowest values are able to express their potential effects in partridges.

Impact of black soldier fly larval meal on growth performance, apparent digestibility, haematological and blood chemistry indices of guinea fowl starter keets under tropical conditions.

In order to assess the impact of larval meal on guinea fowl, six iso-caloric and iso-nitrogenous diets were fed to day-old-keets ad libitum till 8 weeks of age. Water was also freely provided. The fishmeal (FM) component of the experimental diets was replaced with black soldier fly larval meal (BSFLM) in the following percentage ratios of 0-100%. Results showed that body weight gain significantly (P < 0.05) increased in all the BSFLM treatment groups compared to the control group. The final body weight of the birds at age 8 weeks differed significantly (P < 0.001). Dry matter intake varied (P < 0.001) slightly among the birds but never affected (P > 0.05) ME intake and faecal output as well as weight changes of the keets. Digestibility of dry matter and energy were not affected (P > 0.05) by the differences in diet. Organ and haematopoietic integrity were assured regardless of the protein types used as well as levels of inclusion. The results suggest that the replacement of fishmeal with BSFLM in so far as the economics of production is concerned could result in reduced feed cost for starter guinea keet judging from diets that contained 60-100% BSFLM.

Intensive trapping of blood-fed Anopheles darlingi in Amazonian Peru reveals unexpectedly high proportions of avian blood-meals.

Anopheles darlingi, the main malaria vector in the Neotropics, has been considered to be highly anthropophilic. However, many behavioral aspects of this species remain unknown, such as the range of blood-meal sources. Barrier screens were used to collect resting Anopheles darlingi mosquitoes from 2013 to 2015 in three riverine localities (Lupuna, Cahuide and Santa Emilia) in Amazonian Peru. Overall, the Human Blood Index (HBI) ranged from 0.58-0.87, with no significant variation among years or sites. Blood-meal analysis revealed that humans are the most common blood source, followed by avian hosts (Galliformes-chickens and turkeys), and human/Galliforme mixed-meals. The Forage Ratio and Selection Index both show a strong preference for Galliformes over humans in blood-fed mosquitoes. Our data show that 30% of An. darlingi fed on more than one host, including combinations of dogs, pigs, goats and rats. There appears to be a pattern of host choice in An. darlingi, with varying proportions of mosquitoes feeding only on humans, only on Galliformes and some taking mixed-meals of blood (human plus Galliforme), which was detected in the three sites in different years, indicating that there could be a structure to these populations based on blood-feeding preferences. Mosquito age, estimated in two localities, Lupuna and Cahuide, ranged widely between sites and years. This variation may reflect the range of local environmental factors that influence longevity or possibly potential changes in the ability of the mosquito to transmit the parasite. Of 6,204 resting An. darlingi tested for Plasmodium infection, 0.42% were infected with P. vivax. This study provides evidence for the first time of the usefulness of barrier screens for the collection of blood-fed resting mosquitoes to calculate the Human Blood Index (HBI) and other blood-meal sources in a neotropical malaria endemic setting.

PHARMACOKINETIC EVALUATION OF A LONG-ACTING FENTANYL SOLUTION AFTER TRANSDERMAL ADMINISTRATION IN HELMETED GUINEAFOWL (NUMIDA MELEAGRIS).

The objective of this study was to investigate the pharmacokinetics of a long-acting fentanyl solution in helmeted guineafowl ( Numida meleagris ) after transdermal administration. Twenty-one guineafowl received a single administration of 5 mg/kg of fentanyl transdermal solution. No adverse effects on behavior were appreciated. Plasma fentanyl concentrations were determined by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis of protein-precipitated samples. Mean maximum plasma concentration was 228.8 ng/ml at 4 hr. The mean plasma terminal half-life was 33.2 hr. At 168 hr the mean plasma concentration was 1.3 ng/ml. A single topical dose of 5 mg/kg appears to be safe for use in this species and maintained plasma concentrations above those reported to be analgesic in dogs for at least 7 days.

Influence of dietary protein on serum metabolites and antioxidant status: A study in Chrysolophus amherstiae.

This experiment was conducted to study the effect of feeding graded levels of dietary crude protein (CP) on serum biochemical profile of Lady Amherst's pheasants (LAP). Eighteen male LAP were randomly distributed into three groups of six each in an experiment based on completely randomized design. The CP content of the diets was 13.4%, 16.5%, and 19.1%, in groups I, II, and III, respectively. Serum concentrations of uric acid was lowest (P < 0.05) in group I. Relationship between serum concentration of uric acid and nitrogen intake was linear (R(2) = 0.39, P < 0.01). Concentrations of other serum metabolites and enzymes were similar among the groups. Serum concentration of triiodothyronine (T3 ) was highest (P < 0.05) in group I, followed by groups II and III. Total antioxidant capacity (TAC) of serum was lower (P < 0.007), whereas serum concentration of malondialdehyde (MDA) was higher (P < 0.001) in group I as compared to groups II and III. Regression of serum concentration of TAC (R(2) = 0.74, P < 0.01) and MDA (R(2) = 0.39, P < 0.05) was polynomial. Heterophil to lymphocyte ratio was higher (P < 0.007) in group I as compared to groups II and III. Relationship between H/L ratio and nitrogen intake was polynomial (R(2) = 0.69, P < 0.05). Cell mediated immune response measured as foot web index was similar among the groups. Based upon the results, it was concluded that a diet containing 16.5% crude protein would be optimum for improving antioxidant defense and the ability of Lady Amherst's pheasant to combat stress. Zoo Biol. 35:346-354, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Reference intervals for biochemical analytes of captive Black-Fronted Piping-Guan (Aburria jacutinga).

BACKGROUND: Black-Fronted Piping-Guan (Aburria jacutinga) is considered one of the most threatened bird species on the American continent. Ex situ conservation efforts have been developed in Brazil, and monitoring the health status of these populations is essential to ensure reproductive success in captivity. Reference intervals (RI) for biochemistry analytes from a larger population of Black-Fronted Piping-Guan are unavailable. OBJECTIVES: This study was aimed at establishing RI for biochemical analytes of captive Black-Fronted Piping-Guan for future improved health assessments in these animals. METHODS: Blood samples were collected from 32 adult Black-Fronted Piping-Guans for serum and plasma separation. Liver and kidney function markers, and concentration of protein and lipids were measured. Reference intervals were determined using an Excel program with Reference Value Adviser (version 2.0). RESULTS: The RI of the analytes were: AST 20.7-188.0 U/L; CK 713.7-4741.4 U/L; LDH 360.7-1173.7 U/L; γ Glutamyl Transferase 1.1-5.4 U/L; total plasma protein 3.5-6.2 g/dL; total serum protein 1.7-4.7 g/dL; uric acid 0.9-19.2 mg/dL; urea 7.0-25.3 mg/dL; cholesterol 71.8-232.2 mg/dL; triglycerides 25.6-183.4 mg/dL. CONCLUSIONS: The RI are similar to the ones published for other avian species. Only CK and uric acid values were in discordance with the usually reported avian ranges. This could be due to different methods of capture and physical restraint. Alternatively, some differences could be species-specific. In general, physical restraint should be limited to a minimum and without stress to prevent capture myopathy and death.

Effects of season on the reproductive organ and plasma testosterone concentrations in guinea cocks (Numida meleagris).

The physiological basis of seasonal breeding in the guinea fowl (Numida meleagris) still remains unknown, despite the socioeconomic importance of these birds, particularly in Ghana. A study involving a total of 50 local guinea cocks was conducted, and documented gross anatomical and histological differences in the reproductive organs of breeding and non-breeding male guinea fowls. The study also compared peripheral testosterone concentrations in breeding and non-breeding cocks. Seasonal differences in variables measured were determined using two-tailed t-test/Mann-Whitney U-test. All comparisons were made at 5% level of significance. Breeding males had significantly (P = 0.000) higher anatomical biometric parameters than their non-breeding counterparts. Also, breeding birds had thicker (P = 0.000) phalli than their non-breeding counterparts. Histologically, regressing testis was characterized by the presence of sloughed off cells and increased debris in the tubular lumen and within the excurrent duct system, collapsed tubules and reduction in tubular lumen. Germ and Sertoli cell populations and nuclear diameters and actual seminiferous tubular diameter and length in regressing testes were significantly (P = 0.000) lower than in active testes. Leydig cell nuclear diameters and populations were also significantly (P = 0.000) reduced. Relative volume of seminiferous tubules in the testis, testicular sperm production/mg testis and per testis and peripheral testosterone concentrations were all higher (P < 0.05) in breeding than non-breeding testis. The ducts in the epididymal region also saw significant (P < 0.05) reductions in luminal diameters in non-breeding birds. Significant regression in anatomical and histological structures of the guinea cock reproductive tract occurred during the non-breeding season, and lower peripheral testosterone concentrations may be responsible for this phenomenon.

Comparison of selected haematological and biochemical indices and behaviour patterns of pheasant hens kept in different housing systems during the laying period.

Selected haematological and biochemical indices and behaviour patterns were monitored in cage-housed pheasant hens during the peak-of-lay egg laying period. Lower counts of monocytes (p = 0.035) and concentrations of plasma biopterin (p = 0.020) and higher concentrations of plasma neopterin (p = 0.005) and plasma phosphorus (p = 0.025) were found in spectacles-fitted pheasant hens kept in conventional cages compared to non-spectacled hens kept in enriched cages. Even more pronounced effects of the housing system were revealed by analysis of the behaviour of pheasant hens: spectacles-fitted pheasant hens kept in conventional cages exhibited higher occurrences of movement (p = 0.045), stereotyped behaviour (p = 0.039), and aggression (p = 0.004), and lower rates of feeding (p = 0.009), drinking (p < 0.001), defecation (p = 0.038), preening (p = 0.013), and feather pecking (p < 0.001). Our results show that the relatively easy and inexpensive enrichment of the cage environment (two perches, a simple hideout) where breeding groups of common pheasants are housed during the laying period can significantly contribute to the health and welfare (including the ability to express natural behaviour patterns) of pheasants kept in commercial cage systems.

Assessing the Risk of Fipronil-Treated Seed Ingestion and Associated Adverse Effects in the Red-Legged Partridge.

Fipronil is an insecticide commonly used in agriculture, but there are growing concerns over its environmental impacts (e.g., harmful effects on pollinators). Fipronil-treated seed ingestion might threaten granivorous farmland birds, in particular, Gallinaceous birds that are particularly sensitive to this insecticide. We report here on exposure risk and effects in a game bird of high socioeconomic importance, the red-legged partridge (Alectoris rufa). We fed captive birds with untreated maize (controls) or with a mixture of untreated-treated maize (ratio 80:20; exposed birds) during 10 days at the beginning of the breeding period (n = 12 pairs in each group). We first show that exposed partridges did not reject treated seeds but reduced food intake and lost body condition. We further studied the effects of treated seed ingestion on adult survival, oxidative balance, plasma biochemistry, carotenoid-based coloration, cellular immune response, steroid hormone levels, and reproduction. Fipronil exposure altered blood biochemistry and sexual hormone levels and reduced cellular immune response, antioxidant levels, and carotenoid-based coloration. Exposed pairs also had reduced egg fecundation rate and produced eggs with fewer antioxidants and offspring that had reduced cellular immune response. These negative effects on adult partridges, their reproductive performance, and offspring quality highlight that fipronil-treated seed ingestion is a significant threat to wild birds.

Sublethal Pb exposure produces season-dependent effects on immune response, oxidative balance and investment in carotenoid-based coloration in red-legged partridges.

Ingestion of lead (Pb) shot pellets constitutes the main cause of Pb poisoning in avifauna. We studied the effects of sublethal Pb exposure on immunity, carotenoid-based coloration, oxidative stress and trade-offs among these types of responses during spring and autumn in red-legged partridges (Alectoris rufa). We evaluated constitutive immunity testing lysozyme and natural antibody levels, and blood bactericidal and phagocytic activities. We studied induced immunity by testing PHA and humoral responses. We analyzed fecal parasite and bacterial abundance and oxidative stress biomarkers. Pb exposure in spring reduced natural antibody levels, whereas in autumn, it reduced lysozyme levels and increased phagocytic activity. Pb exposure increased PHA response in both seasons, and decreased T-independent humoral response in autumn. Pb exposure also increased noncoliform and decreased coliform Gram-negative gut bacteria. In spring, Pb exposure decreased antioxidant levels and increased coloration in males, whereas in autumn, it increased retinol levels but reduced coloration in both genders. Our results suggest that in spring, Pb-exposed females used antioxidants to cope with oxidative stress at the expense of coloration, whereas Pb-exposed males increased coloration, which may reflect an increased breeding investment. In autumn, both genders prioritized oxidative balance maintenance at the expense of coloration.