Barrelette map formation in the prenatal mouse brainstem.

The rodent whiskers are topographically mapped in brainstem sensory nuclei as neuronal modules known as barrelettes. Little is known about how the facial whisker pattern is copied into a brainstem barrelette topographic pattern, which serves as a template for the establishment of thalamic barreloid and, in turn, cortical barrel maps, and how precisely is the whisker pattern mapped in the brainstem during prenatal development. Here, we review recent insights advancing our understanding of the intrinsic and extrinsic patterning mechanisms contributing to establish topographical equivalence between the facial whisker pattern and the mouse brainstem during prenatal development and their relative importance.

Morphological and functional changes in TRPM8-expressing corneal cold thermoreceptor neurons during aging and their impact on tearing in mice.

Morphological and functional alterations of peripheral somatosensory neurons during the aging process lead to a decline of somatosensory perception. Here, we analyze the changes occurring with aging in trigeminal ganglion (TG), TRPM8-expressing cold thermoreceptor neurons innervating the mouse cornea, which participate in the regulation of basal tearing and blinking and have been implicated in the pathogenesis of dry eye disease (DED). TG cell bodies and axonal branches were examined in a mouse line (TRPM8BAC -EYFP) expressing a fluorescent reporter. In 3 months old animals, about 50% of TG cold thermoreceptor neurons were intensely fluorescent, likely providing strongly fluorescent axons and complex corneal nerve terminals with ongoing activity at 34°C and low-threshold, robust responses to cooling. The remaining TRPM8+ corneal axons were weakly fluorescent with nonbeaded axons, sparsely ramified nerve terminals, and exhibited a low-firing rate at 34°C, responding moderately to cooling pulses as do weakly fluorescent TG neurons. In aged (24 months) mice, the number of weakly fluorescent TG neurons was strikingly high while the morphology of TRPM8+ corneal axons changed drastically; 89% were weakly fluorescent, unbranched, and often ending in the basal epithelium. Functionally, 72.5% of aged cold terminals responded as those of young animals, but 27.5% exhibited very low-background activity and abnormal responsiveness to cooling pulses. These morpho-functional changes develop in parallel with an enhancement of tear's basal flow and osmolarity, suggesting that the aberrant sensory inflow to the brain from impaired peripheral cold thermoreceptors contributes to age-induced abnormal tearing and to the high incidence of DED in elderly people.

MEGF8 is a modifier of BMP signaling in trigeminal sensory neurons.

Bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signaling has emerged as an important regulator of sensory neuron development. Using a three-generation forward genetic screen in mice we have identified Megf8 as a novel modifier of BMP4 signaling in trigeminal ganglion (TG) neurons. Loss of Megf8 disrupts axon guidance in the peripheral nervous system and leads to defects in development of the limb, heart, and left-right patterning, defects that resemble those observed in Bmp4 loss-of-function mice. Bmp4 is expressed in a pattern that defines the permissive field for the peripheral projections of TG axons and mice lacking BMP signaling in sensory neurons exhibit TG axon defects that resemble those observed in Megf8 (-/-) embryos. Furthermore, TG axon growth is robustly inhibited by BMP4 and this inhibition is dependent on Megf8. Thus, our data suggest that Megf8 is involved in mediating BMP4 signaling and guidance of developing TG axons. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.01160.001.

CD11b+GR1+ myeloid cells secrete NGF and promote trigeminal ganglion neurite growth: implications for corneal nerve regeneration.

PURPOSE: We characterized fluorescent bone marrow cells (YFP(+) BMCs) in the thy1-YFP mouse and determine if they promote trigeminal ganglion (TG) cell neurite growth. METHODS: Excimer laser annular keratectomy was performed in thy1-YFP mice, and corneas were imaged. BMCs were harvested from femur and tibia, and the expression of surface markers on YFP(+) BMCs was analyzed by flow cytometry. The immunosuppressive action of BMCs (YFP(+) and YFP(-)) was evaluated in an allogenic mixed lymphocyte reaction (MLR). Neurotrophic action of BMCs (YFP(+) and YFP(-)) was determined in compartmental and transwell cultures of dissociated TG cells. RESULTS: Following annular keratectomy, YFP(+) BMCs infiltrated the cornea. YFP(+) BMCs shared surface markers (CD11b+Gr1+Ly6C+Ly6G-F4/80(low)) with monocytic myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), had similar morphology, and suppressed T-cell proliferation in allogenic MLR in a dose-dependent manner. YFP(+) BMCs, but not YFP(-) BMCs, significantly increased growth of TG neurites in vitro. When cultured in a transwell with TG neurites, YFP(+) BMCs expressed neurotrophins and secreted nerve growth factor (NGF) in conditioned medium. YFP(+) BMCs that infiltrated the cornea maintained their phenotype and actions (neuronal and immune). CONCLUSIONS: YFP(+) BMCs in thy1-YFP mice have immunophenotypic features of MDSCs. They secrete NGF and promote neuroregeneration. Their immunosuppressive and neurotrophic actions are preserved after corneal infiltration. These findings increase our understanding of the beneficial roles played by leukocyte trafficking in the cornea and may lead to therapeutic strategies that use NGF-secreting myeloid cells to repair diseased or injured neurons.

Cephalic sensory influence on forelimb movement in newborn opossums, Monodelphis domestica.

Like other marsupials, the opossum Monodelphis domestica is born very immature and crawls, unaided by the mother, from the urogenital opening to a nipple where it attaches and pursues its development. If the alternate, rhythmic movements of the forelimbs which allow this locomotion are generated by the developing spinal motor networks, sensory information is nonetheless needed to guide the newborn to a nipple. Behavioral, anatomical and physiological studies suggest that the auditory and the visual systems are insufficiently developed in newborn opossums to influence spinal motor centers, while the vestibular, trigeminal, and olfactory systems are likelier candidates. The trigeminal, vestibular and olfactory regions of the brain were electrically stimulated to test their relative effectiveness at eliciting forelimb movement in newborn opossums, using in vitro preparations of brain-spinal cord with the limbs attached. The minimal stimulation of the cervical spinal cord needed to induce forelimb movement was considered as threshold (T). Stimulations of the trigeminal ganglion (5G) at ∼2T and of the vestibular complex at ∼20T could induce the same movement, and were not statistically different, in contrast to the ∼600T necessary for the olfactory bulb (OB). Neurofilament-200 immunohistochemistry and retrograde tracing with Texas-Red conjugated Dextran Amines were used to study trigeminal innervation of the facial skin and pathways by which trigeminal inputs may be relayed to the spinal cord. Numerous nerve fibers were observed in the snout dermis, especially in the maxillary region, but also elsewhere in the head skin. Some 5G cells project to the upper spinal cord, but more project to the caudal medulla where they could contact secondary trigeminal neurons or reticular cells projecting to the spinal cord. These results support a significant influence of the trigeminal and the vestibular systems, but not of olfaction, on forelimb movement of neonatal opossums.

Effective sensory modality activating an escape triggering neuron switches during early development in zebrafish.

Developing nervous systems grow to integrate sensory signals from different modalities and to respond through various behaviors. Here, we examined the development of escape behavior in zebrafish [45-170 h postfertilization (hpf)] to study how developing sensory inputs are integrated into sensorimotor circuits. Mature fish exhibit fast escape upon both auditory/vestibular (AV) and head-tactile stimuli. Newly hatched larvae, however, do not respond to AV stimuli before 75 hpf. Because AV-induced fast escape in mature fish is triggered by a pair of hindbrain neurons known as Mauthner (M) cells, we studied functional development of the M-cell circuit accounting for late acquisition of AV-induced escape. In fast escape elicited by head-directed water jet, minimum onset latency decreased throughout development (5 ms at 45-59 hpf, 3 ms after 75 hpf). After 75 hpf, lesioning the otic vesicle (OV) to eliminate AV input resulted in loss of short-latency (<5 ms) fast escape, whereas ablation of the sensory trigeminal ganglion (gV) to block head-tactile input did not. Before 75 hpf, however, fast escape persisted after OV lesion but disappeared after gV ablation. Laser ablation of the M-cell and Ca²âº imaging of the M-cell during escape demonstrated that M-cell firing is required to initiate short-latency fast escapes at every developmental stage and further suggest that head-tactile input activates the M-cell before 75 hpf, but that after this point AV input activates the M-cell instead. Thus, a switch in the effective sensory input to the M-cells mediates the acquisition of a novel modality for initiating fast escape.

Distinct development of peripheral trigeminal pathways in the platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus) and short-beaked echidna (Tachyglossus aculeatus).

The extant monotremes (platypus and echidnas) are believed to all be capable of electroreception in the trigeminal pathways, although they differ significantly in the number and distribution of electroreceptors. It has been argued by some authors that electroreception was first developed in an aquatic environment and that echidnas are descended from a platypus-like ancestor that invaded an available terrestrial habitat. If this were the case, one would expect the developmental trajectories of the trigeminal pathways to be similar in the early stages of platypus and short-beaked echidna development, with structural divergence occurring later. We examined the development of the peripheral trigeminal pathway from snout skin to trigeminal ganglion in sectioned material in the Hill and Hubrecht collections to test for similarities and differences between the two during the development from egg to adulthood. Each monotreme showed a characteristic and different pattern of distribution of developing epidermal sensory gland specializations (electroreceptor primordia) from the time of hatching. The cross-sectional areas of the trigeminal divisions and the volume of the trigeminal ganglion itself were also very different between the two species at embryonic ages, and remained consistently different throughout post-hatching development. Our findings indicate that the trigeminal pathways in the short-beaked echidna and the platypus follow very different developmental trajectories from the earliest ages. These findings are more consistent with the notion that the platypus and echidna have both diverged from an ancestor with rudimentary electroreception and/or trigeminal specialization, rather than the contention that the echidna is derived from a platypus-like ancestor.

Postnatal maturation of the hyperpolarization-activated cation current, I(h), in trigeminal sensory neurons.

Hyperpolarization-activated inward currents (I(h)) contribute to neuronal excitability in sensory neurons. Four subtypes of hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels generate I(h), with different activation kinetics and cAMP sensitivities. The aim of the present study was to examine the postnatal development of I(h) and HCN channel subunits in trigeminal ganglion (TG) neurons. I(h) was investigated in acutely dissociated TG neurons from rats aged between postnatal day (P)1 and P35 with whole cell patch-clamp electrophysiology. In voltage-clamp studies, I(h) was activated by a series of hyperpolarizing voltage steps from -40 mV to -120 mV in -10-mV increments. Tail currents from a common voltage step (-100 mV) were used to determine I(h) voltage dependence. I(h) activation was faster in older rats and occurred at more depolarized potentials; the half-maximal activation voltage (V(1/2)) changed from -89.4 mV (P1) to -81.6 mV (P35). In current-clamp studies, blocking I(h) with ZD7288 caused membrane hyperpolarization and increases in action potential half-duration at all postnatal ages examined. ZD7288 also reduced the action potential firing frequency in multiple-firing neurons. Western blot analysis of the TG detected immunoreactive bands corresponding to all HCN subtypes. HCN1 and HCN2 band density increased with postnatal age, whereas the low-intensity HCN3 and moderate-intensity HCN4 bands were not changed. This study suggests that functional I(h) are activated in rat trigeminal sensory neurons from P1 during postnatal development, have an increasing role with age, and modify neuronal excitability.

Brn3a regulates neuronal subtype specification in the trigeminal ganglion by promoting Runx expression during sensory differentiation.

The transcription factor Brn3a, product of the pou4f1 gene, is expressed in most sensory neurons throughout embryogenesis. Prior work has demonstrated a role for Brn3a in the repression of early neurogenic genes; here we describe a second major role for Brn3a in the specification of sensory subtypes in the trigeminal ganglion (TG). Sensory neurons initially co-express multiple Trk-family neurotrophin receptors, but are later marked by the unique expression of TrkA, TrkB or TrkC. Maturation of these sensory subtypes is known to depend on the expression of Runx transcription factors. Newborn Brn3a knockout mice fail to express TrkC, which is associated in the TG with mechanoreceptors, plus a set of functional genes associated with nociceptor subtypes. In embryonic Brn3a-/- ganglia, the normal expression of Runx3 is never initiated in TrkC+ neurons, and Runx1 expression is greatly attenuated in TrkA+ nociceptors. These changes are accompanied by expanded expression of TrkB in neurons that abnormally express multiple Trks, followed by the loss of TrkC and TrkA expression. In transgenic embryos expressing a Brn3a-VP16 dominant transactivator, Runx3 mRNA expression is increased, suggesting that it is a direct regulatory target of Brn3a. Chromatin immunoprecipitation confirms that Brn3a binds in vivo to a conserved upstream enhancer element within histone H3-acetylated chromatin in the Runx3 locus. Together these data show that Brn3a acts upstream of the Runx factors, which then repress TrkB expression to allow establishment of the non-overlapping Trk receptor profiles and correct terminally differentiated phenotypes.

Development of functional units within trigeminal ganglia correlates with increased expression of proteins involved in neuron-glia interactions.

Cell bodies of trigeminal nerves, which are located in the trigeminal ganglion, are completely surrounded by satellite glial cells and together form a functional unit that regulates neuronal excitability. The goals of this study were to investigate the cellular organization of the rat trigeminal ganglia during postnatal development and correlate those findings with expression of proteins implicated in neuron-glia interactions. During postnatal development there was an increase in the volume of the neuronal cell body, which correlated with a steady increase in the number of glial cells associated with an individual neuron from an average of 2.16 at birth to 7.35 on day 56 in young adults. Interestingly, while the levels of the inwardly rectifying K+ channel Kir4.1 were barely detectable during the first week, its expression in satellite glial cells increased by day 9 and correlated with initial formation of functional units. Similarly, expression of the vesicle docking protein SNAP-25 and neuropeptide calcitonin gene-related peptide was readily detected beginning on day 9 and remained elevated throughout postnatal development. Based on our findings, we propose that the expression of proteins involved in facilitating neuron-glia interactions temporally correlates with the formation of mature functional units during postnatal development of trigeminal ganglion.

Her4 is necessary for establishing peripheral projections of the trigeminal ganglia in zebrafish.

Transcripts of notch and its target genes have been detected in some differentiating neurons. However, the role of Notch in neuronal differentiation remains poorly defined. Here, we show that a subset of differentiating sensory neurons in the trigeminal ganglia express her4. Expression of her4 requires Notch signaling during neurogenesis but not during differentiation, when peripheral projections of the trigeminal ganglia are established. These projections develop poorly in her4 morphants. While many components of the canonical Notch signaling pathway are not required for late her4 expression or peripheral axon outgrowth in trigeminal neurons, simultaneous knock-down of Notch receptors prevents establishment of these peripheral projections. These observations suggest that Her4 and Notch play a role in peripheral outgrowth of sensory neurons.

Neural tube derived Wnt signals cooperate with FGF signaling in the formation and differentiation of the trigeminal placodes.

BACKGROUND: Neurogenic placodes are focal thickenings of the embryonic ectoderm that form in the vertebrate head. It is within these structures that the precursors of the majority of the sensory neurons of the cranial ganglia are specified. The trigeminal placodes, the ophthalmic and maxillomandibular, form close to the midbrain-hindbrain boundary and many lines of evidence have shown that signals emanating from this level of the neuraxis are important for the development of the ophthalmic placode. RESULTS: Here, we provide the first evidence that both the ophthalmic and maxillomandibular placodes form under the influence of isthmic Wnt and FGF signals. Activated Wnt signals direct development of the Pax3 expressing ophthalmic placodal field and induce premature differentiation of both the ophthalmic and the maxillomandibular placodes. Similarly, overexpression of Fgf8 directs premature differentiation of the trigeminal placodes. Wnt signals require FGF receptor activity to initiate Pax3 expression and, subsequently, the expression of neural markers, such as Brn3a, within the cranial ectoderm. Furthermore, fibroblast growth factor signaling via the mitogen activated protein kinase pathway is required to maintain early neuronal differentiation within the trigeminal placodes. CONCLUSION: We demonstrate the identity of inductive signals that are necessary for trigeminal ganglion formation. This is the first report that describes how isthmic derived Wnt signals act in concert with fibroblast growth factor signaling. Together, both are necessary and sufficient for the establishment and differentiation of the ophthalmic and maxillomandibular placodes and, consequently, the trigeminal ganglion.

Visualizing mechanosensory endings of TrkC-expressing neurons in HS3ST-2-hPLAP mice.

Somatosensory neurons are classified into three main types according to their modalities: nociceptive, thermal, and mechanosensory. Within each modality group, neurons can be further divided into morphologically and functionally distinct subclasses. Here we show that heparan sulfate D-glucosaminyl 3-O-sulfotransferase 2 (HS3ST-2) is a marker for specific subsets of TrkC-expressing cutaneous low-threshold mechanosensory and proprioceptive mechanosensory neurons. Two-color in situ analysis revealed that almost all HS3ST-2 signals colocalized with TrkC but not with TrkA or TrkB mRNA. To visualize the morphological subtypes of HS3ST-2/TrkC-expressing neurons, we generated a HS3ST-2-hPLAP knock-in mouse line, in which HS3ST-2-expressing neurons and their projections are labeled by human placental alkaline phosphatase (hPLAP). AP staining in these mice demonstrated that sensory endings of muscle spindles and Golgi tendon organs as well as the cutaneous mechanosensory Merkel and longitudinal lanceolate endings in the whiskers are strongly positive for hPLAP activity. In contrast, no nociceptive endings are labeled. In the glabrous and hairy skin, rare Merkel endings and transverse lanceolate endings are weakly stained. During development, each type of nerve endings forms at different time point. Muscle innervations differentiate first, followed by formation of cutaneous sensory endings. Our results revealed the subtype identities of TrkC-positive mechanosensory neurons and demonstrated the usefulness of HS3ST-2 as a genetic marker for these subclasses of neurons.

Primary sensory neuron addition in the adult rat trigeminal ganglion: evidence for neural crest glio-neuronal precursor maturation.

It is debated whether primary sensory neurons of the dorsal root ganglia increase the number in adult animals and, if so, whether the increase is attributable to postnatal neurogenesis or maturation of dormant, postmitotic precursors. Similar studies are lacking in the trigeminal ganglion (TG). Here we demonstrate by stereological methods that the number of neurons in the TG of adult male rats nearly doubles between the third and eighth months of age. The increase is mainly attributable to the addition of small, B-type neurons, with a smaller contribution of large, A-neurons. We looked for possible proliferative or maturation mechanisms that could explain this dramatic postnatal expansion in neuron number, using bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) labeling, immunocytochemistry for neural precursor cell antigens, retrograde tracing identification of peripherally projecting neurons, and in vitro isolation of precursor cells from adult TG explant cultures. Cell proliferation identified months after an extended BrdU administration was sparse and essentially corresponded to glial cells. No BrdU-labeled cell took up the peripherally injected tracer, and only a negligible number coexpressed BrdU and the pan-neuronal tracer neuron-specific enolase. In contrast, a population of cells not recognizable as mature neurons in the TG and neighboring nerve expressed neuronal precursor antigens, and neural crest glioneuronal precursor cells were successfully isolated from adult TG explants. Our data suggest that a protracted maturation process persists in the TG that can be responsible for the neuronal addition found in the adult rat.

Expression profiles of ndel1a and ndel1b, two orthologs of the NudE-Like gene, in the zebrafish.

NudE-Like (NDEL1/NUDEL), through its interaction with LIS1 and DISC1, has been implicated in the etiology of neurological disorders such as lissencephaly and schizophrenia, respectively. Subsequently, a large portion of the research done on the function of NDEL1 has been specifically targeted to its role in brain development while ignoring its function in other developing and adult tissues. To begin a more global exploration of NDEL1's function, this study characterizes the developmental expression pattern of the NDEL1 orthologs in the zebrafish embryo. Our bioinformatic analyses identified two NDEL1 orthologs in the zebrafish, ndel1a and ndel1b. ndel1a is expressed predominantly in the anterior central nervous system (CNS), trigeminal ganglia, and eyes while ndel1b is expressed in the developing somites and, later, in the CNS. In addition to the spatial differences in their expression patterns, these genes are also individually regulated in their temporal expression. Both are expressed maternally but at later time-points there are subtle differences. ndel1a expression is lost between 6 and 12 hpf but then increases to a higher, near steady state, level from 72 to 120 hpf. ndel1b expression decreases from 3 to 36 hpf and subsequently increases from 36 to 120 hpf. The non-overlapping expression patterns of these two orthologs may indicate that they have split the functional role of the one NDEL1 gene present in mammalian species. The temporal and spatial regulation of these two orthologs will aid in the characterization of the multiple functions of this gene in both the developing and mature organism.

Effect of BDNF depletion on the formation of Ruffini endings in vibrissa follicles and the survival of their mechanoreceptive neurons in trigeminal ganglion.

We examined the influence of BDNF depletion in peripheral tissues on the formation of Ruffini endings and their neuronal survival by injections of neutralizable anti-BDNF antibody into mouse mystacial pads for periods of 5 days at different developmental stages of the Ruffini endings (the pre-formation stage from the 2nd to 6th day after birth, the formation stage from the 4th to 8th, or the post-formation stage from the 10th to 14th). The treatment at the pre-formation and formation stages caused a significant decrease in the number of Ruffini endings in vibrissa follicles. This decrease in Ruffini endings was accompanied with a significant increase in neuron apoptosis in the trigeminal ganglion (TG) in both stages. However, at the post-formation stage, the anti-BDNF injection showed no effect on the formation of the mechanoreceptors nor their neuronal survival. In the post-formation stage, the axoplasmic spins of Ruffini endings were circumferentially embraced with the cytoplasmic processes of terminal Schwann cells. The present study indicates that target-derived BDNF is essential for survival of mechanoreceptive nerves in the pre-formation and formation stages, but not in the post-formation stages of their development. It seems that Schwann cells participate in this switch-over of neuronal dependency on brain-derived neurotrophic factor.

Complete overlap of interleukin-31 receptor A and oncostatin M receptor beta in the adult dorsal root ganglia with distinct developmental expression patterns.

Interleukin-31 receptor A (IL-31RA) is a newly identified type I cytokine receptor, that is related to gp130, the common receptor of the interleukin (IL) -6 family cytokines. Recent studies have shown that IL-31RA forms a functional receptor complex for IL-31 together with the beta subunit of oncostatin M receptor (OSMRbeta). However, little is known about the target cells of IL-31 because it remains unclear which types of cells express IL-31RA. In our previous reports, we demonstrated that OSMRbeta is expressed in a subset of small-sized nociceptive neurons of adult dorsal root ganglia (DRGs). In the present study, we investigated the IL-31RA expression in the adult and developing DRGs. From a northern blot analysis and in situ hybridization histochemistry, IL-31RA mRNA was found to be expressed in the adult DRGs. According to reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction, IL-31RA mRNA was detected in the DRGs and trigeminal ganglia, while no expression of IL-31RA mRNA was observed in the CNS. Double immunofluorescence staining revealed IL-31RA to be expressed in a subset of small-sized neurons, all of which colocalized with OSMRbeta. In addition, the expression of IL-31 RA was detected in afferent fibers in the spinal cord and the dermis of the skin. We also found that the developmental expression pattern of IL-31RA was different from that of OSMRbeta; IL31RA-positive neurons in DRGs first appeared at postnatal day (PN) 10 and reached the adult level at PN14, whereas OSMRbeta-positive neurons were observed at PN0 for the first time. We previously demonstrated OSMRbeta-expressing neurons to decrease, however, they were not found to disappear in oncostatin M (OSM) -deficient mice. These findings suggest that IL-31 and OSM may thus have redundant functions in the development of OSMRbeta-expressing neurons.

Six1 and Six4 promote survival of sensory neurons during early trigeminal gangliogenesis.

Survival of sensory neurons is tightly regulated in cell-type and developmental-stage-specific manners. The transcriptional regulatory mechanisms underlying this regulation remain to be elucidated. In the present study, we investigated the role of Six1 and Six4 in the development of trigeminal ganglia. Abundant expression of Six1 and Six4 was noted in sensory neurons during early trigeminal gangliogenesis. Loss of both Six1 and Six4 in mice caused severe defects in the trigeminal ganglia, wherein massive apoptosis accompanied by activation of caspase-3 was observed at early but not late stages of gangliogenesis. In Six1(-/-)Six4(-/-) mice, trigeminal sensory neurons were generated, but showed reduced expression of Bcl-x compared with the wild-type mice. Accordingly, neurons from the deficient mice could not survive in culture even in the presence of neurotrophins. Our results suggest a cell-intrinsic role of Six1 and Six4 in the survival of early-generated trigeminal sensory neurons.

Development of rodent whisking: trigeminal input and central pattern generation.

To examine the contribution of whisker inputs to the initial emergence and subsequent refinement of the rodent whisking pattern we combined surgical treatments producing varying degrees of postnatal whisker deafferentation with observations and video analysis of whisking across the first month of life. Whisking emerges during the second postnatal week, preceding eye opening by a few days. In contrast to the absence of deafferentation effects in adults, whisker deafferentation in pups, if carried out between the second and third postnatal week, delays (but does not prevent) the emergence of whisker movements and disrupts the development of normal whisking kinematics and coordination. The extent of the delay varies directly with the reduction in whisker input. When regeneration of the nerve is prevented by a cyanoacrylate block emergence of the normal pattern may be delayed indefinitely. Moreover, section of the whisker motor nerve contralateral to the deafferented side, substantially potentiates the effects of the initial deafferentation. These results confirm and extend an earlier description of the development of whisking in normal rat pups (Welker, Behaviour 12:223-244, 1964), fix the time of its initial emergence more precisely at P (postnatal day) 11-13, and suggest a critical role for trigeminal afference in the development of the normal whisking pattern. They are discussed in relation to the development of pattern generating mechanisms in the rodent whisker system.