Human torque is not present in chimpanzee brain.

We searched for positional brain surface asymmetries measured as displacements between corresponding vertex pairs in relation to a mid-sagittal plane in Magnetic Resonance (MR) images of the brains of 223 humans and 70 chimpanzees. In humans deviations from symmetry were observed: 1) a Torque pattern comprising right-frontal and left-occipital "petalia" together with downward and rightward "bending" of the occipital extremity, 2) leftward displacement of the anterior temporal lobe and the anterior and central segments of superior temporal sulcus (STS), and 3) posteriorly in the position of left occipito-temporal surface accompanied by a clockwise rotation of the left Sylvian Fissure around the left-right axis. None of these asymmetries was detected in the chimpanzee, nor was associated with a sex difference. However, 4) an area of cortex with its long axis parallel to the olfactory tract in the orbital surface of the frontal lobe was found in humans to be located higher on the left in females and higher on the right in males. In addition whereas the two hemispheres of the chimpanzee brain are equal in extent in each of the three dimensions of space, in the human brain the left hemisphere is longer (p = 3.6e-12), and of less height (p = 1.9e-3), but equal in width compared to the right. Thus the asymmetries in the human brain are potential correlates of the evolution of the faculty of language.

Skill not athleticism predicts individual variation in match performance of soccer players.

Just as evolutionary biologists endeavour to link phenotypes to fitness, sport scientists try to identify traits that determine athlete success. Both disciplines would benefit from collaboration, and to illustrate this, we used an analytical approach common to evolutionary biology to isolate the phenotypes that promote success in soccer, a complex activity of humans played in nearly every modern society. Using path analysis, we quantified the relationships among morphology, balance, skill, athleticism and performance of soccer players. We focused on performance in two complex motor activities: a simple game of soccer tennis (1 on 1), and a standard soccer match (11 on 11). In both contests, players with greater skill and balance were more likely to perform better. However, maximal athletic ability was not associated with success in a game. A social network analysis revealed that skill also predicted movement. The relationships between phenotypes and success during individual and team sports have potential implications for how selection acts on these phenotypes, in humans and other species, and thus should ultimately interest evolutionary biologists. Hence, we propose a field of evolutionary sports science that lies at the nexus of evolutionary biology and sports science. This would allow biologists to take advantage of the staggering quantity of data on performance in sporting events to answer evolutionary questions that are more difficult to answer for other species. In return, sports scientists could benefit from the theoretical framework developed to study natural selection in non-human species.

Midsagittal Brain Variation among Non-Human Primates: Insights into Evolutionary Expansion of the Human Precuneus.

The precuneus is a major element of the superior parietal lobule, positioned on the medial side of the hemisphere and reaching the dorsal surface of the brain. It is a crucial functional region for visuospatial integration, visual imagery, and body coordination. Previously, we argued that the precuneus expanded in recent human evolution, based on a combination of paleontological, comparative, and intraspecific evidence from fossil and modern human endocasts as well as from human and chimpanzee brains. The longitudinal proportions of this region are a major source of anatomical variation among adult humans and, being much larger in Homo sapiens, is the main characteristic differentiating human midsagittal brain morphology from that of our closest living primate relative, the chimpanzee. In the current shape analysis, we examine precuneus variation in non-human primates through landmark-based models, to evaluate the general pattern of variability in non-human primates, and to test whether precuneus proportions are influenced by allometric effects of brain size. Results show that precuneus proportions do not covary with brain size, and that the main difference between monkeys and apes involves a vertical expansion of the frontal and occipital regions in apes. Such differences might reflect differences in brain proportions or differences in cranial architecture. In this sample, precuneus variation is apparently not influenced by phylogenetic or allometric factors, but does vary consistently within species, at least in chimpanzees and macaques. This result further supports the hypothesis that precuneus expansion in modern humans is not merely a consequence of increasing brain size or of allometric scaling, but rather represents a species-specific morphological change in our lineage.

Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis of Primary Neocortical Areas in Selected Mammals.

The present study focuses on the relationship between neocortical structures and functional aspects in three selected mammalian species. Our aim was to compare cortical layering and neuron density in the projection areas (somatomotor, M1; somatosensory, S1; auditory, A1; and visual, V1; each in a wider sense). Morphological and design-based stereological analysis was performed in the wild boar (Sus scrofa scrofa) as a representative terrestrial hoofed animal (artiodactyl) and the common dolphin (Delphinus delphis) as a highly derived related aquatic mammal (cetartiodactyl). For comparison, we included the human (Homo sapiens) as a well-documented anthropoid primate. In the cortex of many mammals, layer IV (inner granular layer) is the main target of specific thalamocortical inputs while layers III and V are the main origins of neocortical projections. Because the fourth layer is indistinct or mostly lacking in the primary neocortex of the wild boar and dolphins, respectively, we analyzed the adjacent layers III and V in these animals. In the human, all the three layers were investigated separately. The stereological data show comparatively low neuron densities in all areas of the wild boar and high cell counts in the human (as expected), particularly in the primary visual cortex. The common dolphin, in general, holds an intermediate position in terms of neuron density but exhibits higher values than the human in a few layers. With respect to the situation in the wild boar, stereological neuron counts in the dolphin are consistently higher, with a maximum in layer III of the visual cortex. The extended auditory neocortical field in dolphins and the hypertrophic auditory pathway indicate secondary neurobiological adaptations to their aquatic habitat during evolution. The wild boar, however, an omnivorous quadruped terrestrial mammal, shows striking specializations as to the sensorimotor neurobiology of the snout region.

Thoracic vertebral count and thoracolumbar transition in Australopithecus afarensis.

The evolution of the human pattern of axial segmentation has been the focus of considerable discussion in paleoanthropology. Although several complete lumbar vertebral columns are known for early hominins, to date, no complete cervical or thoracic series has been recovered. Several partial skeletons have revealed that the thoracolumbar transition in early hominins differed from that of most extant apes and humans. Australopithecus africanus, Australopithecus sediba, and Homo erectus all had zygapophyseal facets that shift from thoracic-like to lumbar-like at the penultimate rib-bearing level, rather than the ultimate rib-bearing level, as in most humans and extant African apes. What has not been clear is whether Australopithecus had 12 thoracic vertebrae as in most humans, or 13 as in most African apes, and where the position of the thoracolumbar transitional element was. The discovery, preparation, and synchrotron scanning of the Australopithecus afarensis partial skeleton DIK-1-1, from Dikika, Ethiopia, provides the only known complete hominin cervical and thoracic vertebral column before 60,000 years ago. DIK-1-1 is the only known Australopithecus skeleton to preserve all seven cervical vertebrae and provides evidence for 12 thoracic vertebrae with a transition in facet morphology at the 11th thoracic level. The location of this transition, one segment cranial to the ultimate rib-bearing vertebra, also occurs in all other early hominins and is higher than in most humans or extant apes. At 3.3 million years ago, the DIK-1-1 skeleton is the earliest example of this distinctive and unusual pattern of axial segmentation.

Morfología y morfometría comparada entre los huesecillos auditivos del cerdo común (Sus scrofa domestica) y el Humano (Homo sapiens sapiens) / Comparative study of the morphology between the ossicles of the common pig (Sus scrofa domestica) and human (Homo sapiens sapiens)

El cerdo doméstico (Sus scrofa domestica) ha sido utilizado como modelo para estudiar métodos de implante en el oído medio previo a estudios clínicos humanos. Diferentes investigaciones han destacado la utilidad en este ámbito, como también su alta comparabilidad morfológica en relación con los humanos. Sin embargo, las descripciones anatómicas sobre sus huesecillos auditivos son insuficientes, al igual que las comparaciones en relación con el humano. Por ello, con el objetivo de realizar una descripción detallada de la anatomía de dichos huesecillos comparados con los del humano, se procedió a disecar seis cabezas de cerdo, de las cuales se extrajeron sus huesecillos para observar su morfología. Los resultados preliminares demostraron que la cadena de huesecillos del Cerdo comparte la presencia de las mismas formaciones anatómicas que se pueden identificar en los huesecillos del hombre, pero aún así existen diferencias descriptivas y morfométricas en la morfología de ellas. Los resultados permitieron concluir que existe alta comparabilidad morfológica entre ambas cadenas de huesecillos debido a sus diferencias y similitudes, lo cual lo hace ser un buen modelo didáctico para el estudio y la enseñanza de la morfología auditiva en distintos niveles educacionales.

The domestic Pig (Sus scrofa domestica)has been used as a model to study implants methods in clinical cases of the human middle ear. Different studies have highlighted the usefulness in this area, as well as its high morphological comparability with regard to humans. However, the anatomical descriptions about its ear bones are scarce, as comparisons in relation to the human. Therefore, in order to make a detailed description of the anatomy of these bones compared to human, it was necessary to dissect six pig heads of which its ossicles were removed to observe its morphology. Preliminary results showed that the pig'sossicles share the same anatomical formations that can be identified in the human ones, but there are some descriptive and morphometric differences in its morphology. The results concluded that there is high comparability between both morphological ossicular chains due to their differences and similarities, which makes it a great teaching model for the study and teaching of auditory morphology at different educational levels.

High-throughput RNA sequencing reveals structural differences of orthologous brain-expressed genes between western lowland gorillas and humans.

The human brain and human cognitive abilities are strikingly different from those of other great apes despite relatively modest genome sequence divergence. However, little is presently known about the interspecies divergence in gene structure and transcription that might contribute to these phenotypic differences. To date, most comparative studies of gene structure in the brain have examined humans, chimpanzees, and macaque monkeys. To add to this body of knowledge, we analyze here the brain transcriptome of the western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla), an African great ape species that is phylogenetically closely related to humans, but with a brain that is approximately one-third the size. Manual transcriptome curation from a sample of the planum temporale region of the neocortex revealed 12 protein-coding genes and one noncoding-RNA gene with exons in the gorilla unmatched by public transcriptome data from the orthologous human loci. These interspecies gene structure differences accounted for a total of 134 amino acids in proteins found in the gorilla that were absent from protein products of the orthologous human genes. Proteins varying in structure between human and gorilla were involved in immunity and energy metabolism, suggesting their relevance to phenotypic differences. This gorilla neocortical transcriptome comprises an empirical, not homology- or prediction-driven, resource for orthologous gene comparisons between human and gorilla. These findings provide a unique repository of the sequences and structures of thousands of genes transcribed in the gorilla brain, pointing to candidate genes that may contribute to the traits distinguishing humans from other closely related great apes.

A species' Odyssey: evolution of obstetrical mechanics from Australopithecus Lucy to nowadays.

OBJECTIVE: Study of obstetrical mechanics of Australopithecus Lucy, Homo neanderthalensis and Homo erectus relative to modern Homo sapiens and the Catarrhines. STUDY DESIGN: The material comprised a total of 360 pelves: 3 fossil pelves reconstructed using casts (Australopithecus afarensis Lucy or AL 288-1, Homo erectus KNM-WT 15000, H. neanderthalensis or Kebara 2), 305 female modern adult pelves and 52 female Catarrhine pelves (29 gorillas, 18 chimpanzees, 5 orang-utans). All these pelves were reconstructed in order to carry out 11 pelvimetric measurements. Each measurement was carried out twice and by two different operators. RESULTS: The pelvis of Lucy was platypelloid at each pelvic plane. The pelvic inlet of H. neanderthalensis was anteroposteriorly oval whereas the midplane and the outlet were transversely oval. The pelvis of H. erectus was globally round. In modern women, the inlet was transversely oval. The pelvic midplane and outlet were anteroposteriorly oval. In the great apes, the shape of all three pelvic planes was anteroposteriorly oval. The discriminating value of the various pelvimetry measurements place Australopithecus Lucy, H. neanderthalensis Kebara 2, and H. erectus KNM-WT 15000 close to modern humans and less similar to the great apes. CONCLUSION: Obstetrical mechanics evolved from dystocic delivery with a transverse orientation in Australopithecus to delivery with a modern human-like rotational birth and an increase in the anteroposterior diameters in H. erectus, H. neanderthalensis and modern H. sapiens.

Avaliação comparativa da ultraestrutura e propriedades físicas do esmalte bovino, bubalino e humano / Benchmarking of the ultrastructure and physical properties of bovine, buffalo and human enamel

Este estudo teve como finalidade comparar a morfologia e propriedades físicas da estrutura do esmalte dos dentes bovinos, bubalinos e humanos. A análise deste tecido foi realizada por meio de microscopia eletrônica de varredura, composição mineral, microdureza e rugosidade superficial do esmalte em 41 incisivos bubalinos (Bos taurus indicus), 41 incisivos bovinos (Pelorovis antiques) e 30 incisivos permanentes de humanos. Os resultados mostraram que a ultraestrutura do esmalte revela uma significativa similaridade das espécies estudadas com a encontrada em amostras humanas. No esmalte bovino e bubalino os elementos químicos que apresentaram maior concentração foram: O, Ca e P, justamente os que formam os cristais de hidroxiapatita - Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2. Na microdureza Knoop não houve diferença estatisticamente significante entre as três espécies. Porém, a rugosidade superficial do esmalte bubalino (2,16µm ±0,23) foi significativamente maior quando comparada aos dentes humano (0,36µm ±0,05) e bovino (0,41µm ±0,07). Conclui-se que as características e propriedades do esmalte bovino e bubalino, por meio de análises e testes, apresentou uma morfologia semelhante à de humanos, arquitetura ultraestrutural similar, microdureza e composição mineral equivalente ao tecido dental humano, tornando-se modelos de referência para pesquisas.

This study aimed to compare the morphology and physical properties of the enamel structure of bovine, buffalo and human teeth. Analysis of this tissue was performed by scanning electron microscopy, mineral composition, microhardness and surface roughness of enamel in 41 buffalo incisors (Bos taurus indicus), 41 bovine incisors (Pelorovis antiques), and 30 human permanent incisors. The results showed a significant similarity between the ultrastructure of enamel in these animal species and the one found in human samples. The chemical elements which presented higher concentration in bovine and buffalo enamel were: O,Ca and P, precisely those that form hydroxyapatite crystals - Ca10 (PO4)6 (OH)2. Knoop microhardness values showed no statistically significant differences between the three species. However, the surface roughness of buffalo enamel (2.16µm ±0.23) was significantly higher when compared with human (0.36µm ±0.05) and bovine teeth (0.41µm ±0.07). It is concluded that the characteristics and properties of bovine and buffalo enamel, as obtained from our analysis and testing, showed a similar morphology to that of humans. They showed a similar ultrastructural architecture, microhardness and mineral composition equivalent to the human dental tissue, becoming reference models for research.

Synaptosomal lactate dehydrogenase isoenzyme composition is shifted toward aerobic forms in primate brain evolution.

With the evolution of a relatively large brain size in haplorhine primates (i.e. tarsiers, monkeys, apes, and humans), there have been associated changes in the molecular machinery that delivers energy to the neocortex. Here we investigated variation in lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) expression and isoenzyme composition of the neocortex and striatum in primates using quantitative Western blotting and isoenzyme analysis of total homogenates and synaptosomal fractions. Analysis of isoform expression revealed that LDH in synaptosomal fractions from both forebrain regions shifted towards a predominance of the heart-type, aerobic isoform LDH-B among haplorhines as compared to strepsirrhines (i.e. lorises and lemurs), while in the total homogenate of the neocortex and striatum there was no significant difference in LDH isoenzyme composition between the primate suborders. The largest increase occurred in synapse-associated LDH-B expression in the neocortex, with an especially remarkable elevation in the ratio of LDH-B/LDH-A in humans. The phylogenetic variation in the ratio of LDH-B/LDH-A was correlated with species-typical brain mass but not the encephalization quotient. A significant LDH-B increase in the subneuronal fraction from haplorhine neocortex and striatum suggests a relatively higher rate of aerobic glycolysis that is linked to synaptosomal mitochondrial metabolism. Our results indicate that there is a differential composition of LDH isoenzymes and metabolism in synaptic terminals that evolved in primates to meet increased energy requirements in association with brain enlargement.

Proximal metatarsal articular surface shape and the evolution of a rigid lateral foot in hominins.

This study quantifies the proximal articular surface shape of metatarsal (MT) 4 and MT 5 using three-dimensional morphometrics. Humans and apes are compared to test whether they have significantly different shapes that are skeletal correlates to comparative lateral foot function. In addition, shod and unshod humans are compared to test for significant differences in surface shape. The MT 4 fossils OH 8, Stw 628, and AL 333-160, and the MT 5 fossils AL 333-13, AL 333-78, OH 8, and Stw 114/115 are compared with humans and apes to assess whether they bear greater similarities to humans, which would imply a relatively stable lateral foot, or to apes, which would imply a flexible foot with a midfoot break. Apes have a convex curved MT 4 surface, and humans have a flat surface. The MT 4 fossils show greater similarity to unshod humans, suggesting a stable lateral foot. Unshod humans have a relatively flatter MT 4 surface compared with shod humans. There is much overlap in MT 5 shape between humans and apes, with more similarity between humans and Gorilla. The fossil MT 5 surfaces are generally flat, most similar to humans and Gorilla. Because of the high degree of shape overlap between humans and apes, one must use caution in interpreting lateral foot function from the proximal MT 5 surface alone.

Morphometry research of deer, sheep, and human lumbar spine: feasibility of using deerand sheep in spinal animal models / Investigación morfometríca de la columna vertebral lumbar de ciervos, ovejas y humanos: factibilidad del uso de ciervos y ovejas como modelos animales de columna vertebral

Deer and sheep are used as spinal animal models in clinical and basic research. In this paper, the anatomical morphology, curvature, and morphology index parameters were investigated to assess the feasibility of using deer and sheep as animal models of the human spine. Fresh adult male sheep, deer, and human spine specimens (n = 10 each) were screened and subjected to morphological analyses. The statistical software package SPSS (version 17.0) was used to analyze the statistical similarity and variability among the 3 species. Deer displayed good similarity to human in terms of the vertebral transverse diameter, radius vector, spinal canal transverse diameter, radius vector, and vertebral upper and lower endplate curvature radii. Sheep displayed good similarity to human in terms of the vertebral body height, pedicle height, vertebral mid-lever curvature radius, and vertebral positive curvature radius. Human, deer, and sheep each displayed unique morphological characteristics and trends for the lumbar spine. These findings indicate that deer and sheep are good spinal animal models of human in morphometry, but with specific advantages in different research fields: deer are more suitable when studying vertebrae and endplate structures, while sheep are more suitable when referring to structures such as the vertebral walls.

Los ciervos y las ovejas se utilizan como modelos animales para la investigación clínica y básica de columna vertebral. En este trabajo, fueron investigados parámetros de morfología anatómica, curvatura e índice morfológico para evaluar la viabilidad de la utilización de ciervos y ovejas como modelos animales de la columna vertebral humana. Fueron examinados y sometidos a análisis morfológicos, especímenes frescos de columna vertebral (n = 10 cada uno) de ovejas y ciervos machos adultos, y columnas de individuos adultos humanos, de sexo masculino. Se utilizó el programa estadístico SPSS (versión 17.0) para analizar la similitud estadística y la variabilidad entre las 3 especies. Los ciervos muestran similitud con el humano en términos del diámetro vertebral transversal, vector radio, diámetro del canal espinal transversal, vector radio, y los radios de curvatura vertebral superior e inferior de la placa terminal. Las ovejas muestran similitud con el humano en cuanto a la altura del cuerpo vertebral, altura del pedículo, curvatura de radio vertebral medio, y el radio de curvatura vertebral positiva. Los humanos, ciervos y ovejas muestran características morfológicas y direcciones de la columna vertebral únicas. Estos hallazgos indican que los ciervos y las ovejas son buenos modelos animales en la morfometría de la columna vertebral humana, pero con ventajas específicas en diferentes campos de investigación: los ciervos son más adecuados en el estudio de las vértebras y las estructuras de placa terminal, mientras que las ovejas son más adecuados cuando se refiere a estructuras como las paredes vertebrales.

Neuropil distribution in the cerebral cortex differs between humans and chimpanzees.

Increased connectivity of high-order association regions in the neocortex has been proposed as a defining feature of human brain evolution. At present, however, there are limited comparative data to examine this claim fully. We tested the hypothesis that the distribution of neuropil across areas of the neocortex of humans differs from that of one of our closest living relatives, the common chimpanzee. The neuropil provides a proxy measure of total connectivity within a local region because it is composed mostly of dendrites, axons, and synapses. Using image analysis techniques, we quantified the neuropil fraction from both hemispheres in six cytoarchitectonically defined regions including frontopolar cortex (area 10), Broca's area (area 45), frontoinsular cortex (area FI), primary motor cortex (area 4), primary auditory cortex (area 41/42), and the planum temporale (area 22). Our results demonstrate that humans exhibit a unique distribution of neuropil in the neocortex compared to chimpanzees. In particular, the human frontopolar cortex and the frontoinsular cortex had a significantly higher neuropil fraction than the other areas. In chimpanzees these prefrontal regions did not display significantly more neuropil, but the primary auditory cortex had a lower neuropil fraction than other areas. Our results support the conclusion that enhanced connectivity in the prefrontal cortex accompanied the evolution of the human brain. These species differences in neuropil distribution may offer insight into the neural basis of human cognition, reflecting enhancement of the integrative capacity of the prefrontal cortex.

Paleogenomics of archaic hominins.

In order to understand the genetic basis for the evolutionary success of modern humans, it is necessary to compare their genetic makeup to that of closely related species. Unfortunately, our closest living relatives, the chimpanzees, are evolutionarily quite distant. With the advent of ancient DNA study and more recently paleogenomics - the study of the genomes of ancient organisms - it has become possible to compare human genomes to those of much more closely related groups. Our closest known relatives are the Neanderthals, which evolved and lived in Europe and Western Asia, from about 600,000 years ago until their disappearance around 30,000 years ago following the expansion of anatomically modern humans into their range. The closely related Denisovans are only known by virtue of their DNA, which has been extracted from bone fragments dating around 30,000 to 50,000 years ago found in a single Siberian cave. Analyses of Neanderthal and Denisovan nuclear and mitochondrial genomes have revealed surprising insights into these archaic humans as well as our own species. The genomes provide a preliminary catalogue of derived amino acids that are specific to all extant modern humans, thus offering insights into the functional differences between the three lineages. In addition, the genomes provide evidence of gene flow between the three lineages after anatomically modern humans left Africa, drastically changing our view of human evolution.

Comparing the content of lipids derived from the eye lenses of various species.

The lipid content in the eye lens was analyzed and compared among various species in this study. The eye lens lipids of the following species were investigated: cow, horse, duck, and freshwater trout. Additionally, the lipids derived from cataractous bovine lens and from cataractous human eye lens lipoprotein complexes were analyzed. The following lipid classes were detected in clear lenses: cholesterol, sphingomyelin, phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidyletanolamine, and phosphatidylserine. In cataractous bovine lens and in lipoprotein complexes from human nuclear cataract, phosphatidyloinositol and phosphatidyloglycerol were detected. Cholesterol and sphingomyelin, essential for hypothetical formation of cholesterol-rich domains, were the most abundant lipids in the lenses of all investigated species. These two components of eye lens lipid fraction were analyzed quantitatively using thin layer chromatography and spectrophotometric assay; the other lipids were identified qualitatively using thin layer chromatography.

Proyectos Fisioma / Physione projects

Los proyectos fisioma están siendo desarrollados por diversa organizaciones y comunidades internacionales. Proponen innovadores enfoques investigativos, formas de organización y utilización de recursos para comprender integralmente, como sistemas, al ser humano y otros eucariotas, desde la concepción hasta la muerte, desde los genes hasta los organismos, a través de multiples escalas de espacio (rango: 10 elevado a 9 en la escala métrica), tiempo (rango: 3 x 10 elevado a 15 en segundos) y organización (moléculas, células, tejidos, organos, organismos). Se pone gran énfasis en el uso de modelos matemáticos/computacionales como herramientas para la integración del conocimiento, la experimentación virtual in sílico, el trabajo colaborativo de numerosos grupos multidisciplinarios internacionales, la creación de grandes bases de datos, ontologías, lenguajes estandarizados, metodologías, infraestructura, repositorios de instrumentos de trabajo; el entrenamiento de nuevos investigadores interdisciplinarios, el desarrollo de organizaciones y comunidades para obtener apoyo financiero, considerar aspectos éticos y legales, validar los modelos, facilitar la aplicación de resultados en la clínica, en la industria, en la enseñanza de los profesionales y en la educación del público, con el fin de maximizar los beneficios sociales. Presentamos el proyecto Fisioma de la Union Internacional de Ciencias Fisiológicas (UICF), y el "Humano Fisiológico Virtual", Eurofisioma, apoyado por la Union Europea. Mencionamos otros proyectos relacionados.

Physiome projects are being developed by several international organizations and communities. They propose innovative approaches to research, organization and resourse allocation aiming to fully understand, as systems, the human being and other eukaryotes, from conception to death, from genes to organisms, through multiple scales of space, time and organization (molecules, cells, tissues, organs, organisms). Great emphasis is placed in the of mathematical/computational modeling, in silico experimentation, international collaborative multidisciplinary work; the creation and share of large data bases, antologies standard languages, methodologies. infrastructures, tools; the training of new interdisciplinary investigators. New organizations are being developed to get funding, to consider ethical and legal aspects, to validate models, to facilitate the application of results from basic research to clinical practice, industry and education of professionals and the general public, in order to maximize social benefits. We will consider the Physiome Projects of the International Union Physiological Sciences (IUPS) and the Virtual Physiological Human (VPH), Europhysiome, supported by the European Union. Other related projects are mentioned.