The Evolution of 3D Anatomical Models: A Brief Historical Overview.

For thousands of years, anatomical models have served as essential tools in medical instruction. While human dissections have been the regular source of information for medical students for the last few centuries, the scarcity of bodies and the religious and social taboos of previous times made the process of acquiring human cadavers a challenge. The dissection process was dependent on the availability of fresh cadavers and thus was met with a major time constraint; with poor preservation techniques, decomposition turned the process of employing bodies for instruction into a race against time. However, the advent of anatomical models has countered this issue by supplying accurate anatomical detail in a physical, three-dimensional form superior to that of the two-dimensional illustrations previously used as the primary adjunct to dissection. Artists worked with physicians and anatomists to prepare these models, creating an interdisciplinary interaction that advanced anatomical instruction at a tremendous rate. These models have taken the form of metal, wood, ivory, wax, papier-mâché, plaster, and plastic and have ultimately evolved into computerized and digital representations currently. We provide a brief historical overview of the evolution of anatomical models from a unique neuroanatomical perspective.

Evolución histórica de la docencia de posgrado de la especialidad Imagenología en Sancti Spíritus / Historical evolution of the postgrad Imaging specialty teaching in Sancti Spíritus

RESUMEN Fundamento: En la provincia Sancti Spíritus se constató la ausencia de publicaciones sobre la historia de la docencia de posgrado en la especialidad Imagenología, por lo que se hizo necesaria una investigación que aportara información al patrimonio científico cubano en ciencias de la salud y a la formación del potencial humano actual y futuro. Objetivo: Describir la evolución histórica de la docencia de posgrado de la especialidad Imagenología en la provincia Sancti Spíritus. Desarrollo: Se realizó una investigación cualitativa con el uso de métodos teóricos: histórico-lógico, analítico-sintético y empíricos: entrevista y análisis documental, en el período comprendido desde 1976 hasta 2020. Resultados: Desde el surgimiento de Sancti Spíritus como provincia ya existían algunos médicos radiólogos, pero no fue hasta 1982 que comenzó oficialmente el estudio de la especialidad en el territorio, como filial de Villa Clara. Con la fundación de la Facultad de Ciencias Médicas en 1986 inició un nuevo capítulo de formación de especialistas en Radiología. Con el advenimiento de nuevas técnicas, en 2006 se cambió el nombre de la especialidad por Imagenología. En la actualidad se mantiene la formación regular de especialistas, incluidos residentes autofinanciados. Conclusiones: La Imagenología como especialidad de posgrado en la provincia Sancti Spíritus ha tenido un desarrollo histórico progresivo, gracias al fortalecimiento del claustro de profesores, la formación continua de recursos humanos para la atención a la población del territorio y los resultados científico-técnicos que avalan el progreso actual de la especialidad. La descripción de su evolución histórica permite perfeccionar la formación de las futuras generaciones, asimismo generar pautas para otras investigaciones.

ABSTRACT Background: In Sancti Spíritus province, the absence of publications on the history of Imaging postgraduate teaching was verified, thus, it was necessary an investigation that would provide information to the Cuban-health sciences-scientific heritage and also to the formation of the current and future human potential. Objective: To describe the historical evolution of Imaging postgraduate teaching in Sancti Spíritus province. Development: A qualitative research was carried out with the use of theoretical methods: historical-logical, analytical-synthetic and empirical: interview and documentary analysis, from 1976 to 2020. Results: Since the emergence of Sancti Spíritus as province, there were already some radiologists, but it was not until 1982 that the study of the specialty in the territory officially began as a Villa Clara´s subsidiary. In 1986, with the founding of the Faculty of Medical Sciences, a new chapter of training to Radiology specialists began. In 2006, with the advent of new techniques, the name of the specialty was changed to Imaging. At present, the regular training of specialists is maintained, including self-financed residents. Conclusions: Imaging as a postgraduate specialty in Sancti Spíritus province has had a progressive historical development, thanks to the strengthening of the teaching staff, the continuous training of human resources for the care of the population in the territory, also the scientific-technical results that support the current progress of the specialty. The description of its historical evolution allows to improve the training of future generations, as well as to generate guidelines for other investigations.

Stereoscopy in Surgical Neuroanatomy: Past, Present, and Future.

Since the dawn of antiquity, scientists, philosophers, and artists have pondered the nature of optical stereopsis-the perception of depth that arises from binocular vision. The early 19th century saw the advent of stereoscopes, devices that could replicate stereopsis by producing a 3D illusion from the super-imposition of 2D photographs. This phenomenon opened up a plethora of possibilities through its usefulness as an educational tool-particularly in medicine. Before long, photographers, anatomists, and physicians were collaborating to create some of the first stereoscopic atlases available for the teaching of medical students and residents. In fields like neurosurgery-where a comprehensive visuospatial understanding of neuro-anatomical correlates is crucial-research into stereoscopic modalities are of fundamental importance. Already, medical institutions all over the world are capitalizing on new and immersive technologies-such as 3D intraoperative recording, and 3D endoscopes-to refine their pedagogical efforts as well as improve their clinical capacities. The present paper surveys the history of stereoscopy from antiquity to the modern era-with a focus on its role in neurosurgery and medical education. Through the tracking of this evolution, we can discuss potential benefits, future directions, and highlight areas in which further research is needed. By anticipating these factors, we may strive to take full advantage of an emergent field of technology, for our ultimate goal of improving patient care.

Cone Beam Computed Tomography.

In the last several decades, the need for 3D images in dentistry have developed. Computerized tomography was first introduced mainly with the advent of implantology, but its use remained limited to a small number of specialists, due to its indications, access and dose radiation. In the late 90's, a new technology using a cone-shaped beam and a reciprocating detector, which rotates around the patient 360 degrees and acquires projected data in a single rotation, namely the cone beam computerized tomography (CBCT), invaded dentistry, making the perception of 3D easily acceptable to dentists and their patients.

CT colonography: over two decades from discovery to practice.

Since the introduction of CT colonography (CTC) in the mid-1990s, there have been continuous advancements in the examination technique and advanced visualization software for interpretation. This review will cover the origins of CTC as a natural extension of abdominal CT imaging, and discuss the evolution of CTC through the subsequent clinical phases of feasibility, validation, and implementation.

Advancements in Maxillofacial Trauma: A Historical Perspective.

For the 75th anniversary of the Journal of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, the authors were asked to review the past and examine advancements in the management of facial trauma. Several important advances in the management of maxillofacial trauma have resulted in improved outcomes. These include the development of high-resolution computed tomography, improved classification schemes, rigid fixation techniques, improved biomaterials, soft tissue resuspension, and primary bone grafting. Further advances in outcomes have occurred with the use of microsurgical techniques, free tissue transfer techniques, virtual surgical planning, endoscopic techniques, and surgical navigation. Historic treatments and these important advances are discussed.

A 20 years of progress and future of quantitative magnetic resonance imaging (qMRI) of cartilage and articular tissues-personal perspective.

OBJECTIVE: In 1994, the first article on quantitative magnetic resonance imaging (qMRI) of articular cartilage was published, and tremendous progress in image acquisition, image analysis, and applications has since been made. The objective of this personal perspective is to highlight milestones in the field of qMRI of cartilage and other articular tissues over these past 20 years. METHODS: Based on a Pubmed search of original articles, the authors selected 30 articles which they deemed to be among the first to provide an important technological step forward in qMRI of cartilage, provided a first application in a particular context, or provided mechanistic insight into articular cartilage physiology, pathology, or treatment. RESULTS: This personal perspective summarizes results from these 30 articles. Further, the authors provide examples of how qMRI of cartilage has translated to quantitative analysis approaches of other articular tissues, including bone, meniscus, and synovium/edema. Eventually, the report provides a summary of how the lessons learned might be applied to future clinical trials and clinical practice. CONCLUSIONS: Over the past 20 years, quantitative imaging of articular tissues has emerged from a method to a dynamic field of research by its own. Continuing the qMRI biomarker qualification process will be crucial in convincing regulatory agencies to accept these as primary outcomes in phase 3 intervention trials. Once successful structural intervention will actually become available in OA, qMRI biomarkers may play an essential role in monitoring response to therapy in the clinic, and in stratifying disease phenotypes that respond differently to treatment.

History of imaging in orthodontics from Broadbent to cone-beam computed tomography.

The history of imaging and orthodontics is a story of technology informing biology. Advances in imaging changed our thinking as our understanding of craniofacial growth and the impact of orthodontic treatment deepened. This article traces the history of imaging in orthodontics from the invention of the cephalometer by B. Holly Broadbent in 1930 to the introduction of low-cost, low-radiation-dose cone-beam computed tomography imaging in 2015.

Manfred Girbardt and Charles Bracker: outstanding pioneers in fungal microscopy.

Midway through the twentieth century, the availability of new and improved optical and electronic microscopes facilitated rapid advances in the elucidation of the fine structure of fungal cells. In this Essay, I pay tribute to Manfred Girbardt (1919-1991) and Charles Bracker (1938-2012)­two individuals who, despite being separated by geography and the restrictions of the Cold War, both made equally fundamental discoveries in fungal cell ultrastructure and set high standards for specimen manipulation and image processing.

The art of human anatomy: Renaissance to 21st century.

This session examines the relationship between the art and science of anatomy from the time of Vesalius to the present with particular emphasis on the role of the medical artist and the changing nature of anatomical illustration over the last five centuries. Pivotal changes in the art of anatomy will be examined including the evolution of media and brain imaging from Golgi to Geschwind.

21st century art of human anatomy.

The Session looks at the contemporary role of the medical artist with strategies for the education of medical artists and medical students. The wider topic of medical art in forensics, research and literature is explored as a close look taken at European art and science courses and collaborations.

[Development of intraoperative C-arm imaging in trauma surgery]. / Entwicklung der intraoperativen C-Bogenanwendung in der Unfallchirurgie.

Since the earliest beginnings of using X-rays, two forms of examination techniques have been known: X-ray imaging and projection onto films. The new technology very rapidly became widespread. Just a few months after the discovery of the so-called X-rays, the first fluoroscopes (instruments for visualizing internal structures) were constructed and constantly improved upon. If the operation took place in bright light, a cryptoscope was needed for examination. Since 1984 fluoroscopic examinations or interventions performed under X-ray control are only permitted when systems are used that are equipped with an image intensifier video chain or a digital image receiver with TV monitor.At about the beginning of the new century the first digital imaging systems with solid-state detectors were put into service. Flat panel detectors offer high-quality imaging with good spatial resolution and contrast recognition. At the present time, storable intraoperative three-dimensional diagnostic imaging is available.