Initial report on the multiple biological and pharmacological properties of hispolon: Exploring stochastic mechanisms.

The development of natural substances derived from nature poses a significant challenge as technologies for the extraction and characterization of active principles advance. Hispolon has received a lot of attention in recent years, ascribable to its wide range of biological activities. It is a phenolic molecule that was extracted from several mushroom species such as Phellinus igniarius, Phellinus linteus, Phellinus lonicerinus, Phellinus merrillii, and Inonotus hispidus. To provide a comprehensive overview of the pharmacological activities of hispolon, this review highlights its anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antibacterial, and anti-diabetic activities. Several scientific research databases, including Google Scholar, Web of Science, PubMed, SciFinder, SpringerLink, Science Direct, Scopus, and, Wiley Online were used to gather the data on hispolon until May 2024. The in vitro and in vivo studies have revealed that hispolon exhibited significant anticancer properties through modifying several signaling pathways including cell apoptosis, cycle arrest, autophagy, and inhibition of angiogenesis and metastasis. Hispolon's antimicrobial activity was proven against many bacterial, fungal, and viral pathogens, highlighting its potential use as a novel antimicrobial agent. Additionally, hispolon displayed potent anti-inflammatory activity through the suppression of key inflammatory mediators, such as inducible NO synthase (iNOS), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and cyclooxygenases-2 (COX-2), and the modulation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) signaling pathways. The antioxidant potential of hispolon was attributed to its capacity to neutralize reactive oxygen species (ROS) and to increase the activity of antioxidant enzymes, indicating a possible involvement in the prevention of oxidative stress-related illnesses. Hispolon's antidiabetic activity was associated with the inhibition of aldose reductase and α-glucosidase. Studies on hispolon emphasized its potential use as a promising scaffold for the development of novel therapeutic agents targeting various diseases, including cancer, infectious diseases, inflammatory disorders, and diabetes.

sp2-Iminosugar azobenzene O-glycosides: Light-sensitive glycosidase inhibitors with unprecedented tunability and switching factors.

The conventional approach to developing light-sensitive glycosidase activity regulators, involving the combination of a glycomimetic moiety and a photoactive azobenzene module, results in conjugates with differences in glycosidase inhibitory activity between the interchangeable E and Z-isomers at the azo group that are generally below one-order of magnitude. In this study, we have exploited the chemical mimic character of sp2-iminosugars to access photoswitchable p- and o-azobenzene α-O-glycosides based on the gluco-configured representative ONJ. Notably, we achieved remarkably high switching factors for glycosidase inhibition, favoring either the E- or Z-isomer depending on the aglycone structure. Our data also indicate a correlation between the isomeric state of the azobenzene module and the selectivity towards α- and ß-glucosidase isoenzymes. The most effective derivative reached over a 103-fold higher inhibitory potency towards human ß-glucocerebrosidase in the Z as compared with the E isomeric form. This sharp contrast is compatible with ex-vivo activation and programmed self-deactivation at physiological temperatures, positioning it as a prime candidate for pharmacological chaperone therapy in Gaucher disease. Additionally, our results illustrate that chemical tailoring enables the engineering of photocommutators with the ability to toggle inhibition between α- and ß-glucosidase enzymes in a reversible manner, thus expanding the versatility and potential therapeutic applications of this approach.

Multivalent pyrrolidines acting as pharmacological chaperones against Gaucher disease.

A concise asymmetric synthesis of clickable enantiomeric pyrrolidines was achieved using Crabbé-Ma allenation. The synthesized iminosugars were grafted by copper-free strain-promoted alkyne-azide cycloaddition onto phosphorus dendrimers. The hexavalent and dodecavalent pyrrolidines were evaluated as ß-glucocerebrosidase inhibitors. The level of inhibition suggests that monofluorocyclooctatriazole group may contribute to the affinity for the protein leading to potent multivalent inhibitors. Docking studies were carried out to rationalize these results. Then, the iminosugars clusters were evaluated as pharmacological chaperones in Gaucher patients' fibroblasts. An increase in ß-glucocerebrosidase activity was observed with hexavalent and dodecavalent pyrrolidines at concentrations as low as 1 µM and 0.1 µM, respectively. These iminosugar clusters constitute the first example of multivalent pyrrolidines acting as pharmacological chaperones against Gaucher disease.

Deconstructing Best-in-Class Neoglycoclusters as a Tool for Dissecting Key Multivalent Processes in Glycosidase Inhibition.

Multivalency represents an appealing option to modulate selectivity in enzyme inhibition and transform moderate glycosidase inhibitors into highly potent ones. The rational design of multivalent inhibitors is however challenging because global affinity enhancement relies on several interconnected local mechanistic events, whose relative impact is unknown. So far, the largest multivalent effects ever reported for a non-polymeric glycosidase inhibitor have been obtained with cyclopeptoid-based inhibitors of Jack bean α-mannosidase (JBα-man). Here, we report a structure-activity relationship (SAR) study based on the top-down deconstruction of best-in-class multivalent inhibitors. This approach provides a valuable tool to understand the complex interdependent mechanisms underpinning the inhibitory multivalent effect. Combining SAR experiments, binding stoichiometry assessments, thermodynamic modelling and atomistic simulations allowed us to establish the significant contribution of statistical rebinding mechanisms and the importance of several key parameters, including inhitope accessibility, topological restrictions, and electrostatic interactions. Our findings indicate that strong chelate-binding, resulting from the formation of a cross-linked complex between a multivalent inhibitor and two dimeric JBα-man molecules, is not a sufficient condition to reach high levels of affinity enhancements. The deconstruction approach thus offers unique opportunities to better understand multivalent binding and provides important guidelines for the design of potent and selective multiheaded inhibitors.

Stereocontrolled synthesis of new iminosugar lipophilic derivatives and evaluation of biological activities.

Iminosugars' similarity to carbohydrates determines the exceptional potential for this class of polyhydroxylated alkaloids to serve as potential drug candidates for a wide variety of diseases such as diabetes, lysosomal storage diseases, cancer, bacterial and viral infections. The presence of lipophilic substituents has a significant impact on their biological activities. This work reports the synthesis of three new pyrrolidine lipophilic derivatives O-alkylated in C-6 position. The biological activities of our iminosugars' collection were tested in two cancer cell lines and, due to the pharmaceutical potential, in the model yeast system Saccharomyces cerevisiae to assess their toxicity.

An alternative route for tricyclic quinazolinone-iminosugars and their glucosidase inhibitory activities.

A series of novel tricyclic quinazolinone-iminosugars 5 and their derivatives 7 were obtained from the tosylated sugars by three steps. Firstly, the reaction of the isopropylidene protected sugar tosylate 1 and o-aminobenzylamine 2 generated the precursor tricyclic quinazolin-iminosuar 3, which was then oxidized by KMnO4 to produce the corresponding quinazolinone 4. Finally, removal of the isopropylidene group yielded the target tricyclic quinazolinone iminosugars 5. In addition, quinazolinone-iminosugars 4ac, 4bc and 4cc who contain bromine in the aromatic region underwent Suzuki reaction with phenylboronic acid, followed with the removal of the isopropylidene group to afford the derivatives 7. This strategy will help to construct such fused multicyclic quinazolinone-iminosugars efficiently. Some compounds show certain inhibition against α-glucosidase (saccharomyce cerevisiae).

Evaluation of nonnatural L-iminosugar C,C-glycosides, a new class of C-branched iminosugars, as glycosidase inhibitors.

Capitalizing on a previously developed Staudinger/azaWittig/Grignard (SAWG)-ring contraction sequence that furnished protected six-membered L-iminosugar C,C-glycosides bearing an allyl group and various substituents at the pseudoanomeric position, the synthesis and glycosidase inhibition of a small library of six- and seven-membered L-iminosugar C,C-glycosides is reported. Their hydrogenolysis or cyclization by RCM followed by deprotection afforded eleven L-iminosugars including spirocyclic derivatives. All compounds adopt a 1C4 conformation in solution according to NMR data. Compared to previously reported branched L-iminosugars, the L-iminosugar C,C-glycosides reported herein were less potent glycosidase inhibitors. However, some of these compounds showed micromolar inhibition of human lysosome ß-glucocerebrosidase suggesting that such iminosugars could be useful to access potent CGase inhibitors by adjusting the structure/length of the pseudoanomeric substituents.

Synthesis of the Purported Structure of Glyphaeaside C and Proposed Revisions to the Structures of the Glyphaeaside Alkaloids.

The 10 glyphaeaside alkaloids isolated from the roots of Glyphaea brevis were originally purported as piperidine-based 1-C-alkylated iminosugars, with the A-, B-, and C-type glyphaeasides bearing l-DFJ, DGJ, and DNJ ring configurations, respectively. Subsequent investigations have revealed glyphaeaside C as being a pyrrolidine-based iminosugar with a DMDP ring configuration via total synthesis of the revised structure. In this work, side chain diastereomers of the originally purported structure of glyphaeaside C (10) and two related α-1-C-alkylated DNJ derivatives were synthesized from a common precursor, which was prepared in turn via stereoselective Grignard addition to a protected d-glycosylamine, followed by a reductive amination-cyclization sequence. Glycosidase inhibitory activity studies revealed general structure 10 as having potent inhibition against various α-glucosidases and weak inhibition against almond ß-glucosidase in agreement with similar DNJ-based iminosugars and in contrast to natural glyphaeaside C, suggesting that the (1,2-dihydroxy-3-phenyl)propyl moiety does not play a particularly vital role in the inhibitory modes of action of either compound. Furthermore, the absolute configuration of natural glyphaeaside C was proposed as that of d-DMDP, and the structures of the A- and B-type glyphaeasides were revised as 1-deoxy-DALDP and DALDP derivatives, respectively, based on interpretation of their reported NMR spectroscopic data.

Multivalent Pyrrolidine Iminosugars: Synthesis and Biological Relevance.

Recently, the strategy of multivalency has been widely employed to design glycosidase inhibitors, as glycomimetic clusters often induce marked enzyme inhibition relative to monovalent analogs. Polyhydroxylated pyrrolidines, one of the most studied classes of iminosugars, are an attractive moiety due to their potent and specific inhibition of glycosidases and glycosyltransferases, which are associated with many crucial biological processes. The development of multivalent pyrrolidine derivatives as glycosidase inhibitors has resulted in several promising compounds that stand out. Herein, we comprehensively summarized the different synthetic approaches to the preparation of multivalent pyrrolidine clusters, from total synthesis of divalent iminosugars to complex architectures bearing twelve pyrrolidine motifs. Enzyme inhibitory properties and multivalent effects of these synthesized iminosugars were further discussed, especially for some less studied therapeutically relevant enzymes. We envision that this comprehensive review will help extend the applications of multivalent pyrrolidine iminosugars in future studies.

Bambus[4,6]urils as Dual Scaffolds for Multivalent Iminosugar Presentation and Ion Transport: Access to Unprecedented Glycosidase-Directed Anion Caging Agents.

Bambusurils, BU[4] and BU[6], were used for the first time as multivalent scaffolds to link glycosidases inhibitors derived from 1-deoxynojirimycin (DNJ). Two linear DNJ ligands having six or nine carbon alkyl azido linkers or a trivalent DNJ dendron were grafted onto octapropargylated BU[4] and dodecapropargylated BU[6] using copper-catalyzed cycloaddition (CuAAC) to yield corresponding neoglycobambus[4] and neoglycobambus[6]urils bearing 8 to 24 iminosugars. The inhibition potencies of neoglycoBU[4], neoglycoBU[6] and neoglycoBU[6] caging anions were evaluated against Jack Bean α-mannosidase and compared to monovalent DNJ derivatives. Strong affinity enhancements per inhibitory head were obtained for the clusters holding trivalent dendrons with inhibitory constants in the nanomolar range (Ki = 24 nM for BU[4] with 24 DNJ units). Interestingly, the anion (bromide or iodide) encapsulated inside the cavity of BU[6] does not modify the inhibition potency of neoglycoBU[6], opening the way to water-soluble glycosidase-directed anion caging agents that may find applications in important fields such as bio(in)organic chemistry or oncology.

Introduction of C-alkyl branches to L-iminosugars changes their active site binding orientation.

L-ido-Deoxynojirimycin (L-ido-DNJ) itself showed no affinity for human lysosomal acid α-glucosidase (GAA), whereas 5-C-methyl-L-ido-DNJ showed a strong affinity for GAA, comparable to the glucose analog DNJ, with a Ki value of 0.060 µM. This excellent affinity for GAA and enzyme stabilization was observed only when methyl and ethyl groups were introduced. Docking simulation analysis revealed that the alkyl chains of 5-C-alkyl-L-ido-DNJs were stored in three different pockets, depending on their length, thereby the molecular orientation was changed. Comparison of the binding poses of DNJ and 5-C-methyl-L-ido-DNJ showed that they formed a common ionic interaction with Asp404, Asp518, and Asp616, but both the binding orientation and the distance between the ligand and each amino acid residue were different. 5-C-Methyl-L-ido-DNJ dose-dependently increased intracellular GAA activity in Pompe patient fibroblasts with the M519V mutation and also promoted enzyme transport to lysosomes. This study provides the first example of a strategy to design high-affinity ligands by introducing alkyl branches into rare sugars and L-sugar-type iminosugars to change the orientation of binding.

Stereoselective Access to Iminosugar C,C-Glycosides from 6-Azidoketopyranoses.

We report the synthesis of iminosugar C,C-glycosides starting from 6-azidoketopyranoses. Their Staudinger-azaWittig-mediated cyclization provided bicyclic N,O-acetals, which were stereoselectively opened with AllMgBr to afford ß-hydroxyazepanes with a quaternary carbon α to the nitrogen. Their ring contraction via a ß-aminoalcohol rearrangement produced the six-membered l-iminosugars with two functional handles at the pseudoanomeric position. Inversion of the free OH at the azepane level furnished the d-iminosugars.

Recent results from non-basic glycosidase inhibitors: How structural diversity can inform general strategies for improving inhibition potency.

This review covers the literature in the past 15 years on glycosidase inhibitors lacking a basic nitrogen (for example iminosugars/azasugars) with a focus on natural terpenoids, and mono- and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. From quite diverse structures, insight into inhibitor structural features that may be applicable to optimisation of all glycosidase inhibitors including iminosugars are identified.

Discovery of human hexosaminidase inhibitors by in situ screening of a library of mono- and divalent pyrrolidine iminosugars.

Two libraries of mono- and dimeric pyrrolidine iminosugars were synthesized by CuAAC and (thio)urea-bond-forming reactions from the respective azido/aminohexylpyrrolidine iminosugar precursors. The resulting monomeric and dimeric compounds were screened for inhibition of ß-N-acetylglucosaminidase from Jack beans, the plant ortholog of human lysosomal hexosaminidases. A selection of the best inhibitors of these libraries was then evaluated against human lysosomal ß-N-acetylhexosaminidase B (hHexB) and human nucleocytoplasmic ß-N-acetylglucosaminidase (hOGA). This evaluation identified a potent (nM) and selective monomeric inhibitor of hOGA (compound 7A) that showed a 6770-fold higher affinity for this enzyme than for hHexB. The corresponding dimeric derivative (compound 9D) further remarkably improved the selectivity in the inhibition of hOGA (2.7 × 104 times more selective for hOGA over hHexB) and the inhibition potency (by one order of magnitude). Docking studies were performed to explain the selectivity of inhibition observed in compound 7A.

Glyphaeaside C- enriched extract of Glyphaea brevis restored the antioxidant and reproductive integrity of 1,4-Dinitrobenzene-intoxicated rats.

This study assessed the fertility potential of methanol leaf extract of Glyphaea brevis (MGB) in rats exposed to 1,4-Dinitrobenzene (DNB), an environmental reprotoxicant. Male Wistar rats were orally exposed to 50 mg/kg DNB and administered 750 mg/kg MGB, 1500 mg/kg MGB or 300 mg/kg vitamin E for 21 days after 48 h of DNB exposure. Determination of serum reproductive hormone levels by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, evaluation of hematologic profile, computer-assisted sperm analyses (CASA) of sperm kinematics and morphology, assessment of testicular and spermatozoan antioxidant systems, and histopathological evaluation of reproductive tissues were performed. HPLC-DAD analysis identify Glyphaeaside C as the major component of the extract. In rats toxified with 50 mg/kg DNB, testicular and epididymal weights, serum levels of luteinizing hormone, testosterone and follicle-stimulating hormone, and packed cell volume, haemoglobin concentration, and white blood cell counts were decreased. There was altered sperm kinematics which reflected in increased sperm abnormalities. Treatment with the Glyphaeaside C -enriched MGB counteracted all DNB-induced changes and corrected DNB-induced aberrations in kinematic endpoints. Also, testicular and epididymal antioxidant systems were disrupted and there was damage to tissue histoarchitecture. Furthermore, our molecular docking study revealed that Glyphaeaside-C exhibited high binding affinities to the binding pocket of some free radical generating enzymes. Conclusively, the results indicated that Glyphaeaside C-enriched extract of Glyphaea brevis leaf enhanced the quality of semen and improved the functional capabilities of spermatozoa following exposure of rats to DNB which could translate to enhanced fertility.

Structural variation of the 3-acetamido-4,5,6-trihydroxyazepane iminosugar through epimerization and C-alkylation leads to low micromolar HexAB and NagZ inhibitors.

We report the synthesis of seven-membered iminosugars derived from a 3S-acetamido-4R,5R,6S-trihydroxyazepane scaffold and their evaluation as inhibitors of functionally related exo-N-acetylhexosaminidases including human O-GlcNAcase (OGA), human lysosomal ß-hexosaminidase (HexAB), and Escherichia coli NagZ. Capitalizing on the flexibility of azepanes and the active site tolerances of hexosaminidases, we explore the effects of epimerization of stereocenters at C-3, C-5 and C-6 and C-alkylation at the C-2 or C-7 positions. Accordingly, epimerization at C-6 (L-ido) and at C-5 (D-galacto) led to selective HexAB inhibitors whereas introduction of a propyl group at C-7 on the C-3 epimer furnished a potent NagZ inhibitor.

Synthesis, conformational analysis and glycosidase inhibition of bicyclic nojirimycin C-glycosides based on an octahydrofuro[3,2-b]pyridine motif.

A set of bicyclic iminosugar C-glycosides, based on an octahydrofuro[3,2-b]pyridine motif, has been synthesized from a C-allyl iminosugar exploiting a debenzylative iodocycloetherification and an iodine nucleophilic displacement as the key steps. The halogen allowed the introduction of a range of aglycon moieties of different sizes bearing several functionalities such as alcohol, amine, amide and triazole. In these carbohydrate mimics the fused THF ring forces the piperidine to adopt a flattened 4C1 conformation according to NMR and DFT calculations studies. In their deprotected form, these bicycles were assayed on a panel of 23 glycosidases. The iminosugars displaying hydrophobic aglycon moieties proved to be superior glycosidase inhibitors, leading to a low micromolar inhibition of human lysosome ß-glucosidase (compound 11; IC50 = 2.7 µM) and rice α-glucosidase (compound 10; IC50 = 7.7 µM). Finally, the loose structural analogy of these derivatives with Thiamet G, a potent OGA bicyclic inhibitor, was illustrated by the weak OGA inhibitory activity (Ki = 140 µM) of iminosugar 5.

N-Substituted Valiolamine Derivatives as Potent Inhibitors of Endoplasmic Reticulum α-Glucosidases I and II with Antiviral Activity.

Most enveloped viruses rely on the host cell endoplasmic reticulum (ER) quality control (QC) machinery for proper folding of glycoproteins. The key ER α-glucosidases (α-Glu) I and II of the ERQC machinery are attractive targets for developing broad-spectrum antivirals. Iminosugars based on deoxynojirimycin have been extensively studied as ER α-glucosidase inhibitors; however, other glycomimetic compounds are less established. Accordingly, we synthesized a series of N-substituted derivatives of valiolamine, the iminosugar scaffold of type 2 diabetes drug voglibose. To understand the basis for up to 100,000-fold improved inhibitory potency, we determined high-resolution crystal structures of mouse ER α-GluII in complex with valiolamine and 10 derivatives. The structures revealed extensive interactions with all four α-GluII subsites. We further showed that N-substituted valiolamines were active against dengue virus and SARS-CoV-2 in vitro. This study introduces valiolamine-based inhibitors of the ERQC machinery as candidates for developing potential broad-spectrum therapeutics against the existing and emerging viruses.

Tacrine-sugar mimetic conjugates as enhanced cholinesterase inhibitors.

We have used the Cu(i)-catalyzed azide-alkyne Huisgen cycloaddition reaction to obtain two families of bivalent heterodimers where tacrine is connected to an azasugar or iminosugar, respectively, via linkers of variable length. The heterodimers were investigated as cholinesterase inhibitors and it was found that their activity increased with the length of the linker. Two of the heterodimers were significantly stronger acetylcholinesterase inhibitors than the monomeric tacrine. Molecular modelling indicated that the longer heterodimers fitted better into the active gorge of acetylcholinesterase than the shorter counterparts and the former provided more efficient simultaneous interaction with the tryptophan residues in the catalytic anionic binding site (CAS) and the peripheral anionic binding site (PAS).

Synthesis and chelation study of a fluoroionophore and a glycopeptide based on an aza crown iminosugar structure.

Capitalizing on a recently reported iminosugar-based aza-crown (ISAC) accessed by a double Staudinger azaWittig coupling reaction, we have expanded the structural diversity of this new family of sweet cyclam analogs. Replacement of the two secondary amines linking the iminosugar units by two amide bonds obtained a cyclodimerization by with BOP and DIPEA led to a macrocycle that did not demonstrate efficient Zn2+ chelation unlike the parent ISAC. Introduction of two pyrene moieties on the secondary amines of the parent ISAC yielded a new fluoroionophore that selectively binds Hg2+ in methanol.