Features of exocrine pancreatic insufficiency in patients with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease in combination with type 2 diabetes and COVID-19.

OBJECTIVE: Aim: The aim of the research was to study the features of pancreatic exocrine insufficiency (EPI) in patients with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) and type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM) at COVID-19. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Materials and Methods: 72 patients with NAFLD and COVID-19 were examined. The patients have been divided into two groups: group 1 included 42 patients with NAFLD and insulin resistance (IR); group 2 consisted of 30 patients with NAFLD in the combination with type 2 DM. EPI was detected by 13С-mixed triglyceride breath test (13С-MTBT) in all the patients. RESULTS: Results: The result of 13С-MTBT indicates EPI in the examined subjects of the 2 group. A significant decrease in the maximum concentration of 13СО2 between 150 and 210 min was also diagnosed in group 1 patients. research (up to 8.2 ± 0.9% - p < 0.05), however, the total concentration of 13СО2 at the end of 360 min. the study reached only 27.7 ± 1.1% (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION: Conclusions: Based on the results of laboratory-instrumental methods of research, patients with NAFLD and type 2 diabetes with COVID-19 were diagnosed with severe EPI. The results of 13С-MTBT in NAFLD and IR with COVID-19 indicate a decrease in the functional reserves of the pancreas and the formation of its EPI.

Immune checkpoint inhibitor associated diarrhoea.

A man in his 80s was undergoing immunotherapy with pembrolizumab, an anti-PD-1 monoclonal antibody, following his diagnosis of adenocarcinoma of primary lung origin. 24 weeks into treatment, the patient reported experiencing loose stools associated with malaise and poor appetite but no further symptoms. This progressed in frequency and a clinical diagnosis of grade 2 immune checkpoint inhibitor colitis was made. Management with oral prednisolone was commenced but symptoms persisted. Common enteric infections had been ruled out, as were coeliac disease and hyperthyroidism. Flexible sigmoidoscopy and colonoscopy results were not in keeping with colitis, having revealed normal looking mucosa. Following this, a faecal elastase level was found to be low. A diagnosis of pembrolizumab-induced pancreatic exocrine insufficiency was made, and stool frequency and consistency swiftly improved following the use of pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy.

Impacts of pancreatic exocrine insufficiency on gut microbiota. / èƒ°è ºå¤–åˆ†æ³ŒåŠŸèƒ½ä¸å ¨å¯¹è‚ é“å¾®ç”Ÿç‰©ç¾¤çš„å½±å“.

Pancreatic exocrine insufficiency (PEI) can be induced by various kinds of diseases, including chronic pancreatitis, acute pancreatitis, and post-pancreatectomy. The main pathogenetic mechanism of PEI involves the decline of trypsin synthesis, disorder of pancreatic fluid flow, and imbalance of secretion feedback. Animal studies have shown that PEI could induce gut bacterial overgrowth and dysbiosis, with the abundance of Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium increasing the most, which could be partially reversed by pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy. Clinical studies have also confirmed the association between PEI and the dysbiosis of gut microbiota. Pancreatic exocrine secretions and changes in duodenal pH as well as bile salt malabsorption brought about by PEI may affect and shape the abundance and composition of gut microbiota. In turn, the gut microbiota may impact the pancreatic exocrine acinus through potential bidirectional crosstalk. Going forward, more and higher-quality studies are needed that focus on the mechanism underlying the impact of PEI on the gut microbiota.

Symptoms, burden, and unmet needs of patients living with exocrine pancreatic insufficiency: a narrative review of the patient experience.

Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI) stems from a deficiency of functional pancreatic enzymes with consequent maldigestion and malnutrition. EPI shares clinical symptoms and manifestations with other disorders and is a considerable burden to individuals affected. In this narrative review, we analyzed the literature to identify relevant publications on living with EPI with the scope of individuating evidence gaps, including those related to symptoms, health-related quality of life (HRQoL), emotional functioning, disease burden, presence of comorbidities, and the use of pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy (PERT). Abdominal pain emerged as one of the most prominent symptoms. HRQoL was affected in EPI, but no articles examined emotional functioning. Comorbidities reported involved other pancreatic disorders, diabetes, gastrointestinal disorders, sarcopenia and osteopenia, cardiovascular disorders, bacterial overgrowth, and nutritional deficiencies. PERT was found to be effective in improving EPI symptoms and was well tolerated by most individuals. Our review revealed a dearth of literature evidence on patients' experience with EPI, such as emotional functioning and disease burden. We also revealed that studies on long-term effects of PERT are missing, as are studies that would help advance the understanding of the disease and its progression, risk/mitigating factors, and comorbidities. Future studies should address these identified gaps.

Fat malabsorption in pancreatic cancer: Pathophysiology and management.

Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI) is common in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) and may lead to significant nutrition compromise. In the setting of cancer cachexia and gastrointestinal toxicities of cancer treatments, untreated (or undertreated) EPI exacerbates weight loss, sarcopenia, micronutrient deficiencies, and malnutrition. Together, these complications contribute to poor tolerance of oncologic therapies and negatively impact survival. Treatment of EPI in PDAC involves the addition of pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy, with titration to improve gastrointestinal symptoms. Medical nutrition therapies may also be applicable and may include fat-soluble vitamin replacement, medium-chain triglycerides, and, in some cases, enteral nutrition. Optimizing nutrition status is an important adjunct treatment approach to improve quality of life and may also improve overall survival.

Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency and pancreatic exocrine replacement therapy in clinical practice.

Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI) is a complex condition that disrupts normal digestion and absorption. Patients with EPI may suffer from mild to debilitating malabsorption with a constellation of symptoms that can have a significant effect on quality of life and nutrition status. Pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy (PERT) is effective and safe to treat EPI and is the standard of care for this condition. A wide variety and various forms of these products exist, as well as numerous guidelines and recommendations. Obtaining PERT for patients can oftentimes be cost prohibitive. Determining the presence and extent of EPI can be challenging and patient specific, making it difficult for practitioners. This narrative review will explore these issues, as well as several disease states potentially affected by EPI, and review current management strategies.

Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency and fat malabsorption related to pancreatectomy and other gastrointestinal surgery: A narrative review.

Surgical resection is the mainstay of treatment for patients with tumors of the pancreas. There are a number of well-recognized complications that account for the significant morbidity associated with the operation, including exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI). Patients with pancreatic cancer commonly have evidence of EPI prior to surgery, and this is exacerbated by an operation, the extent of the insult being dependent on the indication for surgery and the operation performed. There are accumulating data to demonstrate that treatment of EPI with pancreatic enzyme replacement (PERT) enhances clinical outcomes after surgery by reducing critical complications; this in turn may enhance oncological outcomes. Data would indicate that quality of life (QoL) is also improved after surgery when enzymes are prescribed. To date, many surgeons and clinicians have not appreciated the need for PERT or the benefits it may bring to their patients; therefore, education of clinicians remains a significant opportunity. In turn, patient education about consumption of the correct dose of enzymes at the appropriate time is key to an optimal outcome. In addition, because of the complex nature of the regulation of pancreatic exocrine function, there is evidence to support the presence of EPI following operations performed on other gastrointestinal (GI) organs, including the esophagus, stomach, and small intestine. The aim of this review is to document the existing published evidence in relation to EPI and its treatment with PERT following GI surgery.

Fat digestion and absorption: Normal physiology and pathophysiology of malabsorption, including diagnostic testing.

Fat digestion and absorption play crucial roles in maintaining energy homeostasis and supporting essential physiological functions. The initial stage of fat digestion occurs in the stomach, where gastric lipase begins the hydrolysis of triglycerides. However, most fat digestion takes place in the small intestine via pancreatic enzymes and bile salts. Emulsification of fat by bile acids facilitates enzymatic action, breaking down triglycerides into free fatty acids and monoglycerides, which are then able to be absorbed by enterocytes. Fat malabsorption can result from various underlying conditions, such as exocrine pancreatic insufficiency, bile acid disorders, or intestinal diseases. The clinical manifestations of fat malabsorption include steatorrhea, malnutrition, and deficiencies of fat-soluble vitamins. Diagnostic approaches involve assessing fecal fat levels, imaging studies, and various functional tests to identify the specific etiology. This review article will describe the normal physiologic process of fat digestion and absorption and discuss various pathophysiology that can lead to fat malabsorption within the gastrointestinal tract as well as their respective diagnostic testing modalities. Effective digestion of fat is essential for overall health, because it allows for absorption of many essential nutrients, plays an integral role in cellular and structural function, and supplies energy to the body. When this is dysfunctional, disorders of malabsorption can occur. This article will give a brief overview of the physiologic process of fat digestion and absorption in healthy individuals as well as review important pathophysiology that can lead to fat malabsorption within the gastrointestinal tract and current diagnostic testing modalities.

An Updated Review of Exocrine Pancreatic Insufficiency Prevalence finds EPI to be More Common in General Population than Rates of Co-Conditions.

Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI) is frequently described as underscreened, underdiagnosed, and undertreated. The treatment for EPI is pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy (PERT), which is costly, and provider confidence in prescribing may be one barrier to reducing undertreatment. The lack of interchangeability studies for prescription PERT and/or lack of efficacy studies of over-the-counter enzyme options may be another barrier. This paper reviewed the prevalence of EPI in the general population and in co-conditions. Prevalence of EPI in the general population is commonly estimated around 10-20%, and further research is needed to evaluate EPI across all age groups and to better understand in which age group EPI becomes more prevalent, as an age effect is often seen in EPI prevalence studies. EPI is perceived to be highly correlated with certain co-conditions, and the majority (~65%) of EPI literature is related to a co-condition such as cystic fibrosis, pancreatitis, post-surgery, cancer, or diabetes. It can be estimated that 85% of literature in identified co-conditions, or 56% of total EPI literature, is on rarer co-conditions which only represent <1% of EPI overall. In contrast, there is very little research and literature on EPI in the general population. The highest absolute rates of EPI with co-conditions are likely diabetes and possibly irritable bowel syndrome with diarrhea, yet they are among the least commonly researched in co-condition and EPI studies. A lack of research on EPI in the general population and in the more common co-conditions may be contributing to the rates of underdiagnosis and underscreening, as well as undertreatment for those with low fecal elastase-1 levels.

A case report of pancreatic exocrine insufficiency in a patient with Parkinson's disease: A coincidence or is there more to it than meets the eye?

Pancreatic exocrine insufficiency (PEI) is an under-diagnosed condition. Untreated PEI can result in developing gastrointestinal symptoms and long-term complications including weight loss, nutrient deficiencies, sarcopenia and osteoporosis. Current best practice recommends testing for PEI in certain disorders including chronic pancreatitis, cystic fibrosis, pancreatic cancer and post-pancreatic surgery. However, there is increasing evidence that PEI is associated with a number of conditions in addition to the aforementioned diseases. These 'at-risk' conditions are a heterogeneous group of diseases, for example, diabetes mellitus, people living with human immunodeficiency virus, high alcohol intake, and coeliac disease. The pathophysiology of some of 'at-risk' conditions is becoming increasingly recognised; therefore, the list of associated conditions are in evolving process. We present a case of a 60-year-old male with Parkinson's disease and persistent abdominal pain who was found to have low faecal elastase levels indicative of severe PEI. His past medical history included none of the known risk factors for PEI. After examining the literature, we report a similar pathophysiological process underlying the development of pancreatitis and Parkinson's disease which is dysfunction of the Unfolded Protein Response. We suggest further research to assess the prevalence of PEI in the population of patients with Parkinson's disease.

Long-term follow-up study of necrotising pancreatitis: interventions, complications and quality of life.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the long-term consequences of necrotising pancreatitis, including complications, the need for interventions and the quality of life. DESIGN: Long-term follow-up of a prospective multicentre cohort of 373 necrotising pancreatitis patients (2005-2008) was performed. Patients were prospectively evaluated and received questionnaires. Readmissions (ie, for recurrent or chronic pancreatitis), interventions, pancreatic insufficiency and quality of life were compared between initial treatment groups: conservative, endoscopic/percutaneous drainage alone and necrosectomy. Associations of patient and disease characteristics during index admission with outcomes during follow-up were assessed. RESULTS: During a median follow-up of 13.5 years (range 12-15.5 years), 97/373 patients (26%) were readmitted for recurrent pancreatitis. Endoscopic or percutaneous drainage was performed in 47/373 patients (13%), of whom 21/47 patients (45%) were initially treated conservatively. Pancreatic necrosectomy or pancreatic surgery was performed in 31/373 patients (8%), without differences between treatment groups. Endocrine insufficiency (126/373 patients; 34%) and exocrine insufficiency (90/373 patients; 38%), developed less often following conservative treatment (p<0.001 and p=0.016, respectively). Quality of life scores did not differ between groups. Pancreatic gland necrosis >50% during initial admission was associated with percutaneous/endoscopic drainage (OR 4.3 (95% CI 1.5 to 12.2)), pancreatic surgery (OR 3.2 (95% CI 1.1 to 9.5) and development of endocrine insufficiency (OR13.1 (95% CI 5.3 to 32.0) and exocrine insufficiency (OR6.1 (95% CI 2.4 to 15.5) during follow-up. CONCLUSION: Acute necrotising pancreatitis carries a substantial disease burden during long-term follow-up in terms of recurrent disease, the necessity for interventions and development of pancreatic insufficiency, even when treated conservatively during the index admission. Extensive (>50%) pancreatic parenchymal necrosis seems to be an important predictor of interventions and complications during follow-up.

Knockdown of the Shwachman-Diamond syndrome gene, SBDS, induces galectin-1 expression and impairs cell growth.

Shwachman-Diamond syndrome (SDS) is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by exocrine pancreatic insufficiency and bone marrow failure. The depletion of SBDS protein by RNA interference has been shown to cause inhibition of cell proliferation in several cell lines. However, the precise mechanism by which the loss of SBDS leads to inhibition of cell growth remains unknown. To evaluate the impaired growth of SBDS-knockdown cells, we analyzed Epstein-Barr virus-transformed lymphoblast cells (LCLs) derived from two patients with SDS (c. 183_184TA > CT and c. 258 + 2 T > C). After 3 days of culture, the growth of LCL-SDS cell lines was considerably less than that of control donor cells. By annealing control primer-based GeneFishing PCR screening, we found that galectin-1 (Gal-1) mRNA expression was elevated in LCL-SDS cells. Western blot analysis showed that the level of Gal-1 protein expression was also increased in LCL-SDS cells as well as in SBDS-knockdown 32Dcl3 murine myeloid cells. We confirmed that recombinant Gal-1 inhibited the proliferation of both LCL-control and LCL-SDS cells and induced apoptosis (as determined by annexin V-positive staining). These results suggest that the overexpression of Gal-1 contributes to abnormal cell growth in SBDS-deficient cells.

Predictive Insights Into Exocrine Pancreatic Insufficiency in Chronic Pancreatitis and Autoimmune Pancreatitis: A Decision Tree Approach.

OBJECTIVE: Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI) is a common manifestation of chronic pancreatitis (CP) and autoimmune pancreatitis (AIP). This study aimed to estimate the presence of EPI in patients with CP or AIP using alternative clinical markers. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A machine learning analysis employing a decision tree model was conducted on a retrospective training cohort comprising 57 patients with CP or AIP to identify EPI, defined as fecal elastase-1 levels less than 200 µg/g. The outcomes were then confirmed in a validation cohort of 26 patients. RESULTS: Thirty-nine patients (68%) exhibited EPI in the training cohort. The decision tree algorithm revealed body mass index (≤21.378 kg/m 2 ) and total protein level (≤7.15 g/dL) as key variables for identifying EPI. The algorithm's performance was assessed using 5-fold cross-validation, yielding area under the receiver operating characteristic curve values of 0.890, 0.875, 0.750, 0.625, and 0.771, respectively. The results from the validation cohort closely replicated those in the training cohort. CONCLUSIONS: Decision tree analysis revealed that EPI in patients with CP or AIP can be identified based on body mass index and total protein. These findings may help guide the implementation of appropriate treatments for EPI.

Visceral Fat Predicts New-Onset Diabetes After Necrotizing Pancreatitis.

OBJECTIVES: We aimed to estimate the incidence of new-onset diabetes (NOD) and identify risk factors for NOD in patients with necrotizing pancreatitis (NP). METHODS: Necrotizing pancreatitis patients were reviewed for NOD, diagnosed >90 days after acute pancreatitis. Baseline demographics, comorbidities, clinical outcomes, computed tomography (CT) characteristics of necrotic collections, and CT-derived abdominal fat measurements were analyzed to identify predictors for NOD. RESULTS: Among 390 eligible NP patients (66% men; median age, 51 years; interquartile range [IQR], 36-64) with a median follow-up of 400 days (IQR, 105-1074 days), NOD developed in 101 patients (26%) after a median of 216 days (IQR, 92-749 days) from NP. Of the NOD patients, 84% required insulin and 69% developed exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI). Age (odds ratio [OR], 0.98), male sex (OR, 2.7), obesity (OR, 2.1), presence of EPI (OR, 2.7), and diffuse pancreatic necrosis (OR, 2.4) were independent predictors. In a separate multivariable model assessing abdominal fat on CT, visceral fat area (highest quartile) was an independent predictor for NOD (OR, 3.01). CONCLUSIONS: New-onset diabetes was observed in 1 of 4 patients with NP, most within the first year and requiring insulin. Male sex, obesity, diffuse pancreatic necrosis, development of EPI, and high visceral adiposity identified those at highest risk.

Skeletal muscle mass and function are affected by pancreatic atrophy, pancreatic exocrine insufficiency and poor nutritional status in patients with chronic pancreatitis.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVE: Previous studies have demonstrated that sarcopenia is frequently observed in patients with chronic pancreatitis (CP). However, most studies have defined sarcopenia solely based on skeletal muscle (SM) loss, and muscle weakness such as grip strength (GS) reduction has not been considered. We aimed to clarify whether SM loss and reduced GS have different associations with clinical characteristics and pancreatic imaging findings in patients with CP. METHODS: One hundred two patients with CP were enrolled. We defined SM loss by the SM index at the third lumbar vertebra on CT (<42 cm2/m2 for males and <38 cm2/m2 for females), and reduced GS by < 28 kg for males and <18 kg for females. RESULTS: Fifty-seven (55.9 %) patients had SM loss, 21 (20.6 %) had reduced GS, and 17 (16.7 %) had both. Patients with SM loss had lower body mass index, weaker GS, higher Controlling Nutritional Status score, lower serum lipase level, and lower urinary para-aminobenzoic acid excretion rate, suggesting worse nutritional status and pancreatic exocrine insufficiency. On CT, main pancreatic duct dilatation and parenchymal atrophy were more frequent in patients with SM loss than in those without it. Patients with reduced GS were older and had worse nutritional status than those without it. CONCLUSIONS: SM loss was associated with pancreatic exocrine insufficiency, low nutritional status, and pancreatic imaging findings such as parenchymal atrophy and main pancreatic duct dilatation, whereas older age and low nutritional status led to additional reduced GS.

Comprehensive, long-term evaluation of pancreatic exocrine insufficiency after pancreatoduodenectomy.

AIMS: Treatment of pancreatic exocrine insufficiency (PEI) following pancreatoduodenectomy (PD) improves quality of life, clinical outcomes, and survival. However, diagnosing PEI following PD is challenging owing to the difficulties with current tests and often non-specific symptoms. This work aims to quantify the true rate of long-term PEI in patients following a PD. METHODS: Patients underwent a PEI screen approximately one to two years following PD for oncologic indication, including the 13C Mixed triglyceride breath test (13CMTGT), faecal elastase 1 (FE-1) and the PEI Questionnaire (PEI-Q). Four reviewers with expertise in PEI reviewed the results blinded to other decisions to classify PEI status; disagreements were resolved on consensus. RESULTS: 26 patients were recruited. Of those with valid test results, these were indicative of PEI based on pre-specified thresholds for 60 % (15/25) for the 13CMTGT, 82 % (18/22) for FE-1, and 88 % (22/25) for the PEI-Q. After discussion between reviewers, the consensus PEI prevalence was 81 % (95 % CI: 61-93 %; 21/26), with 50 % (N = 13) classified as having severe, 23 % (N = 6) moderate, and 8 % (N = 2) mild PEI. DISCUSSION: Since no ideal test exists for PEI, this collation of diagnostic modalities and blinded expert review was designed to ascertain the true rate of long-term PEI following PD. This required our cohort to survive a year, travel to hospital, and undergo a period of starvation and PERT hold, and therefore there is likely to be recruitment bias towards fitter, younger patients with less aggressive pathology. Despite this, over 80 % were deemed to have PEI, with over 90 % of these being considered moderate or severe.