A systematic review of spinal cord ischemia prevention and management after open and endovascular aortic repair.

OBJECTIVE: Spinal cord ischemia (SCI) is one of the most devastating complications after descending thoracic aortic (DTA) and thoracoabdominal aortic (TAA) repairs. Patients who develop SCI have a poor prognosis, with mortality rates reaching 75% within the first year after surgery. Many factors have been shown to increase the risk of this complication, including the extent of TAA repair, length of aortic and collateral network coverage, embolization, and reduced spinal cord perfusion pressure. As a result, a variety of treatment strategies have been developed. We aimed to provide an up-to-date review of SCI rates with associated treatment algorithms from open and endovascular DTA and TAA repair. METHODS: Using PRISMA (preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses) guidelines, a literature review with the MeSH (medical subject headings) terms "spinal cord ischemia," "spinal cord ischemia prevention and mitigation strategies," "spinal cord ischemia rates," and "spinal cord infarction" was performed in the Cochrane and PubMed databases to find all peer-reviewed studies of DTA and TAA repair with SCI complications reported. The search was limited to 2012 to 2021 and English-language reports. MeSH subheadings, including diagnosis, complications, physiopathology, surgery, mortality, and therapy, were used to further restrict the included studies. Studies were excluded if they were not of humans, had not pertained to SCI after DTA or TAA operative repair, and if the study had primarily discussed neuromonitoring techniques. Additionally, studies with <40 patients or limited information regarding SCI protection strategies were excluded. Each study was individually reviewed by two of us (S.L. and A.D.) to assess the type and extent of aortic pathology, operative technique, SCI protection or mitigation strategies, rates of overall and permanent SCI symptoms, associations with SCI on multivariate analysis, and mortality. RESULTS: Of the 450 studies returned by the MeSH search strategy, 41 met the inclusion criteria and were included in the final analysis. For the endovascular DTA repair patients, the overall SCI rates ranged from 0% to 10.6%, with permanent SCI symptoms ranging from 0% to 5.1%. The rate of overall SCI after endovascular and open TAA repair was 0% to 35%. The permanent SCI symptom rate was reported by only one study of open repair at 1.1%. The permanent SCI symptom rate after endovascular TAA repair was 2% to 20.5%. CONCLUSIONS: The present review has provided an up-to-date review of the current rates of SCI and the prevention and mitigation strategies used during DTA and TAA repair. We found that a multimodal approach, including a bundled institutional protocol, staging of multiple repairs, preservation of the collateral blood flow network, augmented spinal cord perfusion, selective cerebrospinal fluid drainage, and distal aortic perfusion during open TAA repairs, appears to be important in reducing the risk of SCI.

Risk factors for spinal cord injury and complications of cerebrospinal fluid drainage in patients undergoing fenestrated and branched endovascular aneurysm repair.

OBJECTIVE: Spinal cord injury (SCI) is one of the most devastating complications of thoracoabdominal aortic aneurysm (TAAA) repair. Cerebrospinal fluid drainage (CSFD) is routinely used to prevent and to treat SCI during open TAAA repair. However, the risks and benefits of CSFD during fenestrated-branched endovascular aneurysm repair (F/B-EVAR) are unclear. This study aimed to determine the risk of SCI after F/B-EVAR and to assess the risks and benefits of CSFD. METHODS: We analyzed 106 consecutive patients with TAAAs treated with F/B-EVAR from 2014 to 2019 in a prospective physician-sponsored investigational device exemption study (G130193). Data were collected prospectively and audited by an independent external monitor. All patients were treated with Cook manufactured patient-specific F/B-EVAR devices or the Cook t-Branch devices (Cook Medical, Bloomington, Ind). CSFD was used at the discretion of the principal investigator. Risk factors for SCI were identified, and CSFD complications were assessed. RESULTS: Prophylactic CSFD was used in 78 patients (73.6%), and 28 patients (26.4%) underwent F/B-EVAR without CSFD. Four patients (3.8%) with prophylactic CSFD developed SCI, including two patients (1.9%) with permanent paraplegia (Tarlov grade 1-2) and two patients (1.9%) with paraparesis (Tarlov grade 3). Multivariate analysis revealed that greater extent of thoracic aortic coverage (odds ratio, 1.06; 95% confidence interval, 1.00-1.11; P = .02) and intraoperative blood loss (odds ratio, 1.00; 95% confidence interval, 1.00-1.002; P = .04) were the significant risk factors for SCI. Six patients (7.6% [6/78]) experienced major CSFD-related complications, including subarachnoid hemorrhage in 2.6% (2), spinal hematoma in 2.6% (2), cerebellar hemorrhage in 1.3% (1), and spinal drain fracture requiring surgical laminectomy in 1.3% (1). Minor CSFD-related complications occurred in 20 patients (25.6% [20/78]), including paresthesia during CSFD insertion (10), minimal bloody cerebrospinal fluid (7), drain malfunction (2), and reflex hypotension (1). Technical difficulties during CSFD catheter placement were noted in seven patients (9.0%). Excluding four patients with SCI, intensive care unit stay was 3.3 ± 4.0 days in the CSFD group vs 1.2 ± 0.9 days in the no-CSFD group (P = .007). Total hospital length of stay was 6.0 ± 4.9 days in the CSFD group vs 3.5 ± 1.9 days in the no-CSFD group (P = .01). CONCLUSIONS: The incidence of SCI after F/B-EVAR with selective CSFD was low, and risk factors for SCI were greater with extent of thoracic aortic coverage and intraoperative blood loss. However, the incidence of major CSFD-related complications exceeded the incidence of SCI, and CSFD significantly increased both intensive care unit and total hospital length of stay. Therefore, routine prophylactic CSFD may not be justified, and a prospective randomized trial of CSFD in patients undergoing F/B-EVAR seems appropriate.

Surgical Thoracoabdominal Aortic Aneurysm Repair in a Non-High-Volume Institution.

BACKGROUND: Surgical thoracoabdominal aortic aneurysm (TAAA) repair remains challenging. Apart from mortality, spinal cord injury (SCI) is a dreaded complication. We analyzed our experience to identify predictors for SCI in a nonhigh-volume institution. PATIENTS AND METHODS: All patients who underwent TAAA repair between February 1996 and November 2016 (n = 182) were enrolled. Most were male (n = 121; 66.4%), median age was 68 years (range: 21-84). Elective operations were performed in 153 instances (84.1%). Our approach to minimize SCI includes distal aortic perfusion, mild hypothermia, identification of the Adamkiewicz artery, and sequential aortic clamping. Cerebrospinal fluid drainage was introduced in 2001 and liberal use of selective visceral perfusion in 2006. RESULTS: Early mortality was 12.1%; it was 8.5% after elective procedures. Reduced left ventricular function, nonelective setting, older age, and longer bypass time were identified as independent predictors for mortality in multivariable logistic regression model. Permanent SCI was observed in nine patients (4.9%), of whom seven (3.8%) developed paraplegia. In a multivariable logistic regression model for paraplegia, peripheral arterial disease (PAD), Crawford type II repair, smaller body surface area, and era before 2001 were identified as independent predictors, whereas only PAD was significant for SCI. The incidence of paraplegia was 13.8% in extensive repair out of the first 91 cases, whereas it was improved up to 2.7% thereafter. CONCLUSION: Using an integrated approach, acceptable outcome of TAAA repair can be achieved, even in a nonhigh-volume center. PAD and extensive involvement of the aorta are strong independent predictors for spinal cord deficit after TAAA repair.

Occlusion of the Celiac Artery during Endovascular Thoracoabdominal Aortic Aneurysm Repair Is associated with Increased Perioperative Morbidity and Mortality.

BACKGROUND: Some studies suggest that celiac artery coverage during elective endovascular thoracoabdominal aortic aneurysm (TAAA) repair is safe given sufficient collateralization of visceral organ perfusion from the superior mesenteric artery. However, there is concern that celiac artery coverage may lead to increased risk of foregut or spinal cord ischemia with an attendant increased risk of mortality. We sought to investigate rates of bowel ischemia, spinal cord ischemia, and 30-day mortality associated with celiac artery coverage during TEVAR and complex EVAR. METHODS: The Society for Vascular Surgery Vascular Quality Initiative database was queried for TEVAR and complex EVAR cases from 2012 to 2018. Inclusion criteria included TAAA pathology and endograft extension to aortic zone 6. Patients with aortic rupture, trauma, prior thoracic aortic surgery, known preoperative occlusion of the left subclavian superior mesenteric, or celiac arteries were excluded. Cases with intraoperative celiac artery occlusion (CAO) were compared retrospectively to cases with celiac artery preservation (CAP). Primary outcomes included 30-day mortality and a composite end point of 30-day mortality, spinal cord ischemia (transient or permanent lower extremity neurologic deficit), and bowel ischemia (colonoscopic evidence of ischemia, bloody stools in a patient who dies prior to colonoscopy or laparotomy, or other documented clinical diagnosis). Univariable comparisons were performed using chi-squared tests and Student's t-tests, as appropriate. Multivariable logistic regression analyses were employed to identify independent predictors of outcome. RESULTS: There were 628 cases identified for inclusion in the study. Patients undergoing CAO (n = 44) were more likely to be female or to have higher rates of preoperative spinal drain use, American Society of Anesthesiologists score ≥3, low preop hemoglobin, and/or symptomatic presentation, but fewer mean number of aortic zones covered. CAO was associated with higher 30-day mortality (5 of 44, 11%) compared to CAP (23 of 584, 4%), P = 0.039. The composite end point occurred at a significantly greater proportion for those who had CAO (10 of 44, 23%) compared to CAP (53 of 584, 9%, P = 0.008), driven by higher rates of 30-day mortality and bowel ischemia (9% vs. 2%, P = 0.026). By multivariate analysis, CAO was predictive of 30-day mortality (odds ratio [OR] = 3.9, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.1-13.8, P = 0.04) and the composite endpoint (OR = 3.0, 95% CI = 1.1-8.5, P = 0.03). Increasing procedure time was also associated with 30-day mortality (OR = 1.4, 95% CI = 1.1-1.7, P < 0.001) and the composite end point (OR = 1.4, 95% CI = 1.1-1.6, P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: For those treated for TAAAs, CAO was independently predictive of increased 30-day mortality and a composite end point of perioperative mortality, spinal cord ischemia, and bowel ischemia. When treating patients with extensive aortic aneurysmal disease, physicians should attempt to preserve the celiac artery, by revascularization or avoiding ostium coverage, whenever feasible.

Incidence, predictors, and outcomes of spinal cord ischemia in elective complex endovascular aortic repair: An analysis of health insurance claims.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to determine predictors and outcomes associated with spinal cord ischemia (SCI) after elective fenestrated or branched endovascular aneurysm repair (F/BEVAR) of thoracoabdominal aortic aneurysm (TAAA), abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA), or aortic dissection. METHODS: Health insurance claims data of Germany's third largest insurance provider, DAK-Gesundheit, were used to investigate SCI in elective F/BEVAR performed between 2008 and 2017. The International Classification of Diseases and German Operation and Procedure Classification System were used. We stratified the results into F/BEVAR with one or two (AAA) vs three or more (TAAA) fenestrations or branches. RESULTS: A total of 877 patients (18.9% female; 5.8% with SCI) matching the inclusion criteria were identified during the study period. SCI occurred more often after F/BEVAR of TAAA vs AAA (10.7% vs 3.0%; P < .001). SCI was associated with female sex in the AAA group (odds ratio, 3.87; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.25-11.15; P = .014) and with cardiac arrhythmias in the TAAA group (odds ratio, 2.98; 95% CI, 1.24-7.06; P = .013). Compared with patients without SCI, SCI patients were more likely to suffer from drug use disorders (eg, opioids, cannabinoids, sedatives) in the TAAA group (17.6% vs 2.1%; P < .05). After F/BEVAR of TAAA, the occurrence of SCI was associated with higher 90-day mortality (14.7% vs 1.1%; P < .05), longer postoperative hospital stay (22 vs 9 days; P < .05), and severe adverse events, such as acute respiratory insufficiency (44.1% vs 12.7%), acute renal failure (35.3% vs 11.3%), and pneumonia (29.4% vs 4.9%; all P < .05). In adjusted analyses, SCI was associated with worse long-term survival after F/BEVAR for TAAA (hazard ratio, 2.54; 95% CI, 1.37-4.73; P < .003). CONCLUSIONS: Female AAA patients and TAAA patients with cardiac arrhythmias are at highest risk for development of SCI after F/BEVAR. The occurrence of this event was strongly associated with higher major complication rates and worse short-term and long-term survival. This emphasizes a need to further illuminate the value of spinal cord protection protocols in F/BEVAR.

National incidence, mortality outcomes, and predictors of spinal cord ischemia after thoracic endovascular aortic repair.

OBJECTIVE: Spinal cord ischemia (SCI) is a dreaded complication of thoracic endovascular aortic repair (TEVAR). There are limited national data describing the incidence and influence of in-hospital SCI recovery on survival. Moreover, no robust preoperative SCI risk assessment models currently exist. The purpose of this analysis was to analyze the Vascular Quality Initiative to determine the national incidence, survival association, and preoperative predictors of SCI after TEVAR. METHODS: All Vascular Quality Initiative TEVAR procedures (June 2014-June 2019) were reviewed. The primary end point was development of in-hospital SCI, defined as any new neurologic deficit or paralysis not attributable to intracranial disease. Secondary end points were disease-specific SCI rates and long-term out-of-hospital survival. Functional outcomes (transient vs permanent SCI) were independently determined by treating physicians. Kaplan-Meier analysis and Cox proportional hazards methodology were used to assess the association of SCI with survival. A logistic regression model of candidate preoperative SCI predictors was created, and bootstrapped backward elimination (retaining predictors with ≥50% selection frequency) was used for model reduction. Model fit and performance statistics were validated by adjustment for Efron's optimism. RESULTS: The overall rate of SCI was 3.7% (n = 422/11,473; transient, 1.6% [n = 179]; permanent, 2.1% [n = 243]). Patients who developed any SCI had significantly lower Kaplan-Meier survival estimate compared with those without SCI (1-year survival: SCI, 65%; no SCI, 87%; P < .0001), and patients with permanent SCI had notably worse survival than patients with transient SCI (1-year survival: permanent SCI, 54%; transient SCI, 80%; P < .0001). Disease-specific incidence of any SCI was as follows: aneurysm, 3.4%; dissection, 5.3%; aneurysm from dissection, 4.1%; trauma, 1.1%; penetrating ulceration, 2.4%; intramural hematoma, 5.7%; penetrating ulceration and intramural hematoma, 4.3%; and aortic thrombus, 4.8%. Several factors were selected on multivariable analysis as the most robust preoperative predictors of any SCI, including distal landing zone 5 to zone 10, nonelective case, creatinine concentration >1.38 mg/dL, smoking history, American Society of Anesthesiologists class, adjunctive procedure, nonwhite race, and preoperative hypertension (area under the curve = 0.72; Nagelkerke R2 = 0.06). CONCLUSIONS: SCI is a devastating complication after TEVAR that is associated with worse overall survival, particularly when no functional recovery occurs by hospital discharge. Disease-specific, real-world benchmarks for SCI rates are provided that may inform quality initiatives focused on reducing this complication. Importantly, this analysis is the first description of a preoperative prediction model derived from national data for determining SCI risk after TEVAR. These predictors should be used to identify high-risk patients to balance the risk of SCI and its associated increased short-term mortality with the risk of the underlying disease. Furthermore, all available adjunctive measures should be implemented in these high-risk patients to reduce risk of SCI.

Assessment of Neurone-Specific Enolase, Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein and S100 B as Spinal Cord Ischemia Biomarkers in Patients Undergoing Open and Endovascular Complex Aortic Surgery: A Single-Center Experience.

BACKGROUND: Despite all efforts, spinal cord ischemia (SCI) is a relevant and feared complication after open and endovascular thoracoabdominal aortic aneurysm (TAAA) repair. Besides the established correlation of motor evoked potentials (MEPs) and SCI, the usage of biomarkers for early detection of SCI intraoperatively and postoperatively after TAAA surgery is scarcely described in literature. METHODS: The methods include retrospective assessment of 33 patients (48.48% male) undergoing open and endovascular TAAA repair between January 2017 and January 2018. Levels of the biomarkers neurone-specific enolase (NSE), glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), and S100 B were correlated with a decrease of the amplitude of the MEPs of more than 50%, indicating SCI. Linear mixed models were applied to test for differences in the biomarker levels between open and endovascular surgery and between different times of measurement. Post hoc analyses were performed using Tukey's multiple comparisons test. Logistic regression models were used to investigate the association between GFAP, NSE, and S100 B levels at different times and a significant decrease in MEP or in-hospital mortality. RESULTS: Altogether, 19 patients were treated by endovascular repair; 14 patients were treated by open repair; 5 patients were treated because of a type I TAAA; 7 received treatment because of a type II TAAA; 7, 10, and 4 patients received type III, IV, or V TAAA repair, respectively. In-hospital mortality was 18.18% (n = 6); 5 of these patients were treated because of symptomatic TAAA. MEP decrease could be observed in 18 cases (54.5%), with 16 (48.4%) recovering during the intervention. SCI could be observed in 9.09% (n = 3), 2 endovascular repairs leading to paraplegia and one open repair leading to paraparesis. All biomarkers showed increasing levels over time, with no statistically significant difference between open and endovascular repair. The difference in NSE and S100 B levels between the different times of measurements was statistically significant (P < 0.0001, P = 0.0017, respectively). In a univariable logistic regression analysis, no correlation with the end points "significant decrease in MEP" or "in-hospital mortality" was observed for any of the assessed biomarkers. CONCLUSIONS: SCI-related biomarkers, namely NSE and S100 B, show a relevant increase directly after open and endovascular TAAA surgery, while no clear association between these biomarker levels and an intraoperatively measurable indicator for SCI could be observed.

Spinal Cord Protection for Thoracic Aortic Surgery: Bench to Bedside.

This article summarizes the anatomically driven pathophysiology of spinal cord injury, the impact of ischemia reperfusion on the cellular level, current research in developing neuronal ischemic tolerance, and promotion of collateralization. It addresses neuroprotective strategies in modern clinical practice, current pharmacologic interventions, and continued challenges in the management of complex aortic disease. The pathophysiology of spinal cord injury includes disruption and recovery of collateral blood flow and the effects of malperfusion on the spinal cord. The optimal approach to spinal cord protection is to employ an integrated and protocolized set of strategies to simultaneously maximize spinal cord blood flow, improve ischemic tolerance, and promote collateralization. In the laboratory setting, investigation should continue to pursue a more granular understanding of ischemic injury and seek to translate protective therapies to clinical practice.

Association of preoperative spinal drain placement with spinal cord ischemia among patients undergoing thoracic and thoracoabdominal endovascular aortic repair.

OBJECTIVE: Spinal cord ischemia (SCI) is among the most devastating complications of thoracic endovascular aortic repair (TEVAR). Spinal fluid drainage has been proposed as a viable means to reduce SCI, but few data exist to support its routine use. This study investigated the association of preoperative spinal fluid drainage with the risk of SCI after TEVAR. METHODS: The Vascular Quality Initiative TEVAR module was queried for adult patients (≥18 years) undergoing TEVAR (coverage of zones 0-5) between September 2014 and March 2018 (inclusive). Patients with preoperative spinal malperfusion, aortic rupture on presentation, and connective tissue disorders were excluded. One-to-one propensity matching was used to balance patients on 44 separate dimensions by the nearest neighbor principle to compare those with vs those without preoperative spinal drainage. The primary end point was SCI still present at the time of discharge. Secondary outcomes were 30-day mortality and prolonged intensive care unit stay (>7 days). RESULTS: Among 4287 patients who underwent TEVAR (mean age, 67.1 [standard deviation, 13.7] years; 1665 [38.8%] women and 2622 [61.2%] men), 2076 had a spinal drain placed. Propensity matching yielded 1292 pairs with adequate covariate balance (all 44 absolute standardized differences <0.1). In the 2584 propensity-matched patients, spinal drain placement was associated with a reduced risk of SCI (1.5% vs 2.5%; risk-adjusted odds ratio [OR], 0.47; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.24-0.89; P = .02). The rates of 30-day mortality (4.5% vs 5.0%; risk-adjusted OR, 0.67; 95% CI, 0.44-1.01; P = .05) and prolonged intensive care unit stay (7.0% vs 5.7%; risk-adjusted OR, 1.10; 95% CI, 0.84-1.45; P = .48) did not differ on the basis of spinal drain placement. The crossover rate was 10% (127/1292), and those with postoperative drain placement had a 20% (26/127) SCI rate on discharge. CONCLUSIONS: Among patients undergoing thoracic and thoracoabdominal endovascular aortic repair, preoperative placement of a spinal drain, compared with no drain, was associated with reduced risk of SCI. Cerebrospinal fluid drainage as a rescue measure does not provide the same protection offered by routine preoperative placement. Further investigation, including randomized controlled trials, is needed to more definitively determine the role for spinal drainage in TEVAR.

Risk of spinal cord ischemia after fenestrated or branched endovascular repair of complex aortic aneurysms.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of our study was to analyze the incidence of spinal cord ischemia (SCI) in patients presenting with complex aortic aneurysms treated with endovascular aneurysm repair (EVAR) and to identify risk factors associated with this complication. METHODS: A retrospective study was undertaken of prospectively collected data including patients presenting with complex aortic aneurysm (pararenal abdominal aortic aneurysm and thoracoabdominal aortic aneurysm) treated with fenestrated EVAR (F-EVAR) or branched EVAR (B-EVAR). The primary end point was the incidence of SCI and the assessment of any associated factors. RESULTS: Between January 2011 and August 2017, a total of 243 patients (mean aneurysm diameter, 65.2 ± 15.3 mm; mean age, 72.4 ± 7.5 years; 73% male) were treated with F-EVAR or B-EVAR. Asymptomatic patients were treated in 73% of the cases (177/243, in contrast to 27% urgent), and 52% (126/243) were treated for thoracoabdominal aortic aneurysm (in contrast to 48% for pararenal abdominal aortic aneurysm). F-EVAR (mean number of fenestrations, 3.3/case) and B-EVAR (mean number of branches, 3.7/case) were undertaken in 67% (164/243) and 33% (79/243), respectively. The total incidence of SCI was 17.7% [43/243; paraplegia in 4% (10/243) and paraparesis in 13.7% (33/243)]. Most of the patients with SCI presented with immediate postoperative symptoms (72% [31/43]). A spinal drain was preoperatively placed in 53% (130/243) and was associated with the prevention of SCI (SCI with spinal drainage, 12% [16/130]; SCI without spinal drainage, 24% [27/113]; P = .018). The 30-day mortality rate was 9% (21/243). After multiple logistic regression analysis, SCI was associated with preoperative renal function (SCI with preoperative glomerular filtration rate <60 mL/min/1.73 m2: odds ratio [OR], 2.43; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.18-4.99; P = .016) and the number of vertebral segments covered (SCI with higher position of proximal stent in terms of vertebra: OR, 1.2; 95% CI, 1.1-1.3; P = .000). A similar outcome was derived when the height of the proximal end of the stent graft was replaced by the total length of aortic coverage (SCI with preoperative glomerular filtration rate <60 mL/min/1.73 m2: OR, 2.36 [95% CI, 1.11-5.00; P = .025]; SCI with longer length of aortic coverage: OR, 1.01 [95% CI, 1.003-1.009; P = .000]). CONCLUSIONS: The majority of SCI incidence after F-EVAR or B-EVAR of complex aortic aneurysms is manifested immediately postoperatively. The use of preoperative spinal drainage may prevent SCI. Patients with GRF <60 mL/min/1.73 m2 and with longer aortic stent graft coverage are at higher risk of SCI.

Spinal Cord Ischemia following Elective Endovascular Repair of Infrarenal Aortic Aneurysms: A Systematic Review.

BACKGROUND: Spinal cord ischemia (SCI) after abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) endovascular abdominal aortic aneurysm repair (EVAR) is a rare but devastating complication. The mechanism underlying the occurrence of SCI after EVAR seems to be multifactorial and is underreported and not fully elucidated. The aim of the study was to investigate the clinical outcomes in patients with this serious complication. METHODS: A systematic review of the current literature, as per Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses statement guidelines, was performed to evaluate the incidence of SCI after elective EVAR. PubMed and Scopus databases were systematically searched. Studies reporting on thoracic endovascular aneurysm repair, open repair of AAAs, and symptomatic or ruptured AAAs were excluded. RESULTS: In total, 18 articles reporting 25 cases were included. The mean age was 74.6 ± 7.6 (range: 60-90) years. The mean diameter of AAAs was 5.96 ± 1.0 cm (range: 4.7-8.3). Six cases also had aneurysms in the common iliac arteries. Seventy-one percent of AAAs had characteristics that made EVAR difficult and technically demanding. The mean operative time was prolonged, 254 ± 104.6 min, and associated with extensive intravascular handling. In 41.6% of cases, additional procedures were performed because of the difficult anatomy. Thirty-two percent of the cases had 1 internal iliac artery (IIA) embolized with coils or covered with the stent graft, and 14% had both IIAs compromised. In most of the cases, SCI symptoms presented immediately after the operation, and in 14.8% of patients, the symptoms had late presentation. Almost all cases had motor loss in the form of paraparesis or paraplegia, 54% of the cases also had diminished sensation, and 29.1% of the cases had urinary and/or fecal incontinence. Heterogeneity was observed regarding the management of the disease; in 6 of the cases, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) drainage was performed, steroids were administered in 5, and in the other cases, an expectant strategy was selected. In 50% of the cases, only small improvement was seen at follow-up. In 25% of the cases, no improvement was seen, and 25% had almost complete recovery. CONCLUSIONS: Our study identified a common pattern among patients who present SCI after EVAR: difficult anatomy, prolonged operative time, additional procedures, and extensive intravascular handling that may have led to embolization. Patency of pelvic circulation preoperatively is also of importance. Regarding outcomes, only 25% of patients recovered, and in certain cases, CSF drainage may have significantly improved chances for recovery.

Adjunct Perfusion Branch for Reduction of Spinal Cord Ischemia in the Endovascular Repair of Thoracoabdominal Aortic Aneurysms.

BACKGROUND: To analyze utilization of a perfusion branch for temporary sac perfusion to reduce the spinal cord ischemia (SCI) in the endovascular repair of thoracoabdominal aortic aneurysms (TAAAs). METHODS: Between January 2012 and August 2016, 30 patients (18, men; median age 72 years) were treated for TAAAs with total endovascular repair using customized branched/fenestrated endografts in our institution. The median aneurysm size was 6.6 cm. Types of TAAA were: type I, 9 (30%), type II, 5 (16.6%), type III, 4 (13.3%), type IV, 6 (20%), and type V, 6 (20%). Ten patients received a perfusion branch to create an intentional endoleak, which was occluded with vascular plugs in mean interval time of 8.2 weeks (range: 6-10). Staged procedure and automated cerebrospinal fluid drainage were used in 23 (77%) and 24 (80%) patients, respectively. RESULTS: The technical success was 97%; 107 renovisceral target vessels were revascularized (32 fenestrations, 75 branches). At the time of the planned reinterventions, the mean arterial pressure (MAP) gradients were measured between the temporarily perfused aneurysm sac and the aortic endografts, and they were significantly higher (mean gradients 42.5 ± 10 mm Hg; range: 30-60) within the aortic grafts. The in-hospital and 30-day mortality was 3.3%. The incidence of postoperative SCI was 3/20 (15%) in the standard group and 0% in the group of the perfusion branch (p = 0.28). The mean follow-up was 12 months (range: 2-51). CONCLUSION: We experience that the use of a dedicated perfusion branch is feasible and may serve as protective adjunct to reduce the risk of SCI in endovascular treatment of TAAA. The risk of rupture in interval appears to be low. Larger series and multicenter studies are warranted to corroborate these results.

Implementation of a bundled protocol significantly reduces risk of spinal cord ischemia after branched or fenestrated endovascular aortic repair.

OBJECTIVE: Spinal cord ischemia (SCI) is a devastating complication after branched or fenestrated endovascular aortic repair (B/FEVAR) for thoracoabdominal aortic disease. The purpose of this analysis was to describe the impact of a bundled clinical care protocol designed to reduce the risk of SCI in this population of patients. METHODS: A bundled SCI prevention protocol including cerebrospinal fluid drainage, blood pressure parameters, transfusion goals, and pharmacologic adjuncts (steroids, naloxone) was initiated in May 2015. Before that date, portions of the protocol (cerebrospinal fluid drainage in particular) were used in an informal fashion in patients perceived to be at high risk. B/FEVAR cases completed from January 2012 to May 2016 were reviewed, and outcomes before (n = 223) and after (n = 70) SCI bundle application were compared. The primary end point was the incidence of SCI events. Secondary end points included length of stay, complications, and survival. High-risk patients for SCI were defined as those undergoing B/FEVAR resulting in aortic coverage equivalent to open Crawford extent I to III thoracoabdominal aortic aneurysm (TAAA) repair. Survival was estimated using Kaplan-Meier life-table analysis. RESULTS: Postprotocol patients were more likely to be older (75 ± 7 vs 72 ± 8 years; P = .03), to have an American Society of Anesthesiologists class 4 designation (94% vs 81%; P = .04), and to be treated for TAAA (67% vs 56%; P = .004). Postprotocol pre-emptive spinal drain use was greater in high-risk patients (100% vs 87%; P = .04) but significantly decreased in lower risk patients (suprarenal aneurysm or extent IV TAAA: 5% after protocol implementation vs 21% before protocol implementation; P = .04). Rates of any SCI before and after implementation of the bundled protocol were 13% (n = 29 of 223) and 3% (n = 2 of 70; P = .007), respectively. In comparing high-risk patients, protocol use resulted in an even more significant reduction in SCI rate (19% [28 of 144] vs 4% [2 of 50]; P = .004). Postoperative morbidity (41% vs 33%; P = .2) and 30-day mortality (5% vs 1%; P = .3) were not different between groups. However, patients treated on protocol had significantly improved 1-year survival (99% ± 1% after protocol implementation vs 90% ± 2% before protocol implementation; log-rank, P = .05). CONCLUSIONS: Implementation of a bundled multimodal protocol may significantly reduce risk of SCI after B/FEVAR, with the greatest risk reduction occurring in the most vulnerable patients. Interestingly, reduction in SCI risk was associated with improvement in 1-year survival.

Association of left subclavian artery coverage without revascularization and spinal cord ischemia in patients undergoing thoracic endovascular aortic repair: A Vascular Quality Initiative® analysis.

Objectives Investigate the impact of left subclavian artery coverage without revascularization on spinal cord ischemia development in patients undergoing thoracic endovascular aortic repair. Methods The Vascular Quality Initiative thoracic endovascular aortic repair module (April 2011-July 2014) was analyzed. Patients undergoing left subclavian artery coverage were divided into two groups according to revascularization status. The association between left subclavian artery revascularization with the primary outcome of spinal cord ischemia and the secondary outcome of stroke was assessed with multivariable analysis adjusting for between-group baseline differences. Results The left subclavian artery was covered in 508 (24.6%) of the 2063 thoracic endovascular aortic repairs performed. Among patients with left subclavian artery coverage, 58.9% underwent revascularization. Spinal cord ischemia incidence was 12.1% in the group without revascularization compared to 8.5% in the group undergoing left subclavian artery revascularization (odds ratio (95%CI): 1.48(0.82-2.68), P = 0.189). Multivariable analysis adjustment identified an independent association between left subclavian artery coverage without revascularization and the incidence of spinal cord ischemia (adjusted odds ratio (95%CI): 2.29(1.03-5.14), P = 0.043). Although the incidence of stroke was also higher for the group with a covered and nonrevascularized left subclavian artery (12.1% versus 8.5%), this difference was not statistically significant after multivariable analysis (adjusted odds ratio (95%CI): 1.55(0.74-3.26), P = 0.244). Conclusion For patients undergoing left subclavian artery coverage during thoracic endovascular aortic repair, the addition of a revascularization procedure was associated with a significantly lower incidence of spinal cord ischemia.

Clinical Outcomes of Spinal Cord Ischemia after Fenestrated and Branched Endovascular Stent Grafting during Total Endovascular Aortic Repair for Thoracoabdominal Aortic Aneurysms.

BACKGROUND: In this single-center study, we assessed the clinical outcomes of fenestrated endovascular aortic repair (f-EVAR) and branched EVAR on morbidity and mortality during total endovascular aortic repair for thoracoabdominal aortic aneurysms (TAAAs). METHODS: Between July 2006 and June 2015, elective f-EVAR and multibranched EVAR (t-Branch) for TAAAs were performed in 99 patients at our institution (Crawford classification types I [7], II [13], III [6], IV [55], and V [18]). We retrospectively analyzed 44 patients, excluding those with Crawford type IV TAAAs, and compared 30 patients treated with f-EVAR and 14 treated with t-Branch. Multivariate analysis was performed to determine the factors associated with perioperative spinal cord ischemia (SCI). RESULTS: Technical success was 96.7% with f-EVAR and 100% with t-Branch, and the 30-day mortality rate was 3.3% with f-EVAR and 7.1% with t-Branch (P = 0.646). The incidences of perioperative SCI were higher with t-Branch (n = 5, 35.7%) than those with f-EVAR (n = 2, 6.7%; P = 0.04). Endoleaks were more prevalent with f-EVAR (n = 9, 30.0%) than with t-Branch (n = 1, 7.1%; P = 0.046). Rates of freedom from aneurysm-related death after 1 year for f-EVAR and t-Branch were 96.7 and 92.9%, respectively, and those after 3 years were 88.8 and 92.9% (P = 0.982), respectively. The risk of SCI remarkably increased in the presence of risk factors such as procedure (t-Branch), maximum short axis of ≥65 mm, coverage length of ≥360 mm, internal iliac artery occlusion, and ≥ 5 sacrificed intercostal arteries. CONCLUSIONS: Our initial to mid-term results of f-EVAR and t-Branch were good with low rates of perioperative mortality and high rates of freedom from aneurysm-related death. SCI incidence with t-Branch was significantly high; it is important to develop additional SCI prevention methods for patients with high-risk factors.

Factors predictive of survival and estimated years of life lost in the decade following nontraumatic and traumatic spinal cord injury.

STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective chart review. OBJECTIVES: To identify factors predictive of survival after spinal cord injury (SCI). SETTING: Tertiary care institution. METHODS: Multiple-variable Cox proportional hazards regression analysis for 759 patients with SCI (535 nontraumatic and 221 traumatic) included age, sex, completeness of injury, level of injury, functional independence measure (FIM) scores, rehabilitation length of stay and SCI cause. Estimated years of life lost in the decade after injury was calculated for patients vs uninjured controls. RESULTS: Median follow-up was 11.4 years. Population characteristics included paraplegia, 58%; complete injury, 11%; male sex, 64%; and median rehabilitation length of stay, 16 days. Factors independently predictive of decreased survival were increased age (+10 years; hazard ratio (HR (95% CI)), 1.6 (1.4-1.7)), male sex (1.3 (1.0-1.6)), lower dismissal FIM score (-10 points; 1.3 (1.2-1.3)) and all nontraumatic causes. Metastatic cancer had the largest decrease in survival (HR (95% CI), 13.3 (8.7-20.2)). Primary tumors (HR (95% CI), 2.5 (1.7-3.8)), vascular (2.5 (1.6-3.8)), musculoskeletal/stenosis (1.7 (1.2-2.5)) and other nontraumatic SCI (2.3 (1.5-3.6)) were associated with decreased survival. Ten-year survival was decreased in nontraumatic SCI (mean (s.d.), 1.8 (0.3) years lost), with largest decreases in survival for metastatic cancer and spinal cord ischemia. CONCLUSIONS: Age, male sex and lower dismissal FIM score were associated with decreased survival, but neither injury severity nor level was associated with it. Survival after SCI varies depending on SCI cause, with survival better after traumatic SCI than after nontraumatic SCI. Metastatic cancer and vascular ischemia were associated with the greatest survival reduction.

Spinal Cord Infarction in Clinical Neurology: A Review of Characteristics and Long-Term Prognosis in Comparison to Cerebral Infarction.

Spinal cord stroke is rare accounting for 0.3-1% of all strokes and is classified into upper (cervical) and lower (thoracolumbar) strokes. Patients present with severe deficits but later often show good functional improvement. On admission, younger age, male gender, hypertension, diabetes mellitus and elevated blood glucose indicate more severe spinal cord strokes. Treatment of these risk factors is essential in the acute phase. Biphasic spinal cord strokes are seen in one-fifth of the patients. These present with acute or transient sensory spinal cord deficits often preceded by radiating pain between the shoulders, and should be considered and treated as imminent spinal cord strokes. Spinal cord infarction patients are younger and more often women compared to cerebral infarction patients. Traditional cerebrovascular risk factors are less relevant in spinal cord infarction. Spinal cord infarction patients are more likely to be discharged home and show better improvement after initial treatment compared to cerebral infarction patients. On long-term follow-up, spinal cord infarction patients have lower mortality and higher emotional well-being scores than cerebral infarction patients. Despite more chronic pain, the frequency of re-employment is higher among spinal cord infarction patients compared to cerebral infarction patients who are more often afflicted with cognitive function deficits.

Intercostal Artery Reconstruction: The Simple and Effective Technique on Spinal Cord Protection during Thoracoabdominal Aortic Replacement.

BACKGROUND: To retrospectively analyze the role of intercostal artery reconstruction in the spinal cord protection for patients undergoing extensive thoracoabdominal aortic aneurysm repair. METHODS: From August 2007 to 2014, thoracoabdominal aortas (Crawford II) of 81 consecutive patients with mean age 39.4 ± 10.32 years were repaired. Seventy-three of these patients (90.12%) were diagnosed with aortic dissection in our group, 25 (30.86%) with Stanford type A dissection and 48 (59.26%) with Stanford B aortic dissection. All 25 patients with type A dissection have previously undergone surgical procedures which include Bentall's procedures in 11 cases, ascending aortic replacement in 6 cases, and total aortic arch replacement in 8 cases. All procedures were performed under profound hypothermia with interval cardiac arrest after making a thoracoabdominal incision. Extracorporeal circulation was instituted with 2 arterial cannulae and a single venous cannula in the right atrium. T6-T12 intercostal arteries and L1 and L2 lumbar arteries were formed to a neo-intercostal artery in place and were connected to an 8 mm branch for maintaining spinal cord blood perfusion. Visceral arteries were joined into a patch and anastomosed to the end of the main graft. The left renal artery was anastomosed to an 8 mm branch or joined to the patch. The other 10 mm branches were anastomosed to iliac arteries. RESULTS: With 100% follow-up, early mortality was 7.4%. Six deaths were recorded; 1 patient died of cerebral hemorrhage, 3 of renal failure, 1 of heart failure because of myocardial infarction, and the last one died from the rupture of celiac artery dissection. The rate of postoperative spinal cord deficits was 3.7%, 2 patients with paraplegia and 1 patient with paraparesis. None had bladder or rectum dysfunction. Neo-intercostal arteries were clogged in 12 patients within follow-up period and formed pseudoaneurysm in 2 patients with Marfan syndrome. The mean survival time in this group was 54.22 ± 3.03 months (95% confidence interval 44.37-59.90 months) with survival rate of 92.37% after 1 year, 89.02% after 2 years, and 85.54% after 5 years. All patients were free from spinal cord deficits. CONCLUSIONS: Intercostal artery reconstruction is an effective technique for spinal cord protection in patients with the thoracoabdominal aortic repair. It can achieve favorable results and avoid spinal cord deficits with long-term follow-up.

Neuromonitoring, Cerebrospinal Fluid Drainage, and Selective Use of Iliofemoral Conduits to Minimize Risk of Spinal Cord Injury During Complex Endovascular Aortic Repair.

PURPOSE: To review outcomes of continuous motor/somatosensory-evoked potential (MEP/SSEP) monitoring, cerebrospinal fluid drainage, and selective use of iliofemoral conduits in patients undergoing endovascular repair of descending thoracic aneurysm (DTA) and thoracoabdominal aortic aneurysms (TAAAs). METHODS: The clinical data of 49 patients (mean age 75±8 years; 38 men) who underwent endovascular repair of DTA and TAAAs (2011-2014) were reviewed. All patients had cerebrospinal fluid drainage, permissive hypertension (mean arterial pressure ≥80 mm Hg), and MEP/SSEP monitoring. There were 44 (90%) patients with TAAAs and 5 (10%) with DTA. Types I and II TAAAs were repaired in staged procedures. Iliofemoral conduits were used for small iliac arteries and to minimize time of lower extremity ischemia in patients with difficult anatomy. In patients with changes in MEP/SSEPs, a standardized protocol was employed to optimize spinal cord perfusion and restore lower extremity blood flow. Endpoints were mortality, spinal cord injury (SCI), and lower extremity ischemic complications. RESULTS: Sixteen (33%) patients had staged TAAA repair. A total of 163 visceral arteries were targeted by fenestrations and branches (mean 3.7±1.0 vessels/patient). Temporary iliofemoral conduits were used in 16 limbs/14 patients. A stable MEP/SSEP was achieved in all patients. Thirty-one (63%) patients had a ≥75% decrease in MEP/SSEP amplitude in 50 limbs starting on average 75±28 minutes after obtaining vascular access. MEP/SSEP amplitude improved with maneuvers in 12 (39%) patients and returned to baseline with restoration of lower extremity flow in all except 1 patient who developed immediate SCI. Thirty-day mortality was 4%. Three (6%) patients had SCI, 2 permanent and 1 temporary at 14 days. There were no lower extremity ischemic complications. CONCLUSION: Neuromonitoring predicted immediate SCI and allowed use of a protocol to optimize spinal cord and lower extremity perfusion during complex endovascular aortic repair. Larger clinical experience is needed to evaluate the efficacy of neuromonitoring to prevent SCI.

The impact of preoperative identification of the Adamkiewicz artery on descending and thoracoabdominal aortic repair.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the impact of preoperative identification of the Adamkiewicz artery (AKA) on prevention of spinal cord injury (SCI) through the multicenter Japanese Study of Spinal Cord Protection in Descending and Thoracoabdominal Aortic Repair (JASPAR) registry. METHODS: Between January 2000 and October 2011, 2435 descending/thoracoabdominal aortic repairs were performed, including 1998 elective repairs and 437 urgent repairs, in 14 major centers in Japan. The mean patient age was 67 ± 13 years, and 74.2% were males. There were 1471 open repairs (ORs), including 748 descending and 137 thoracoabdominal extent [Ex] I, 136 Ex II, 194 Ex III, 115 Ex IV, and 138 Ex V, and 964 endovascular repairs (EVRs). Of the 2435 patients, 1252 (51%) underwent preoperative magnetic resonance or computed tomography angiography to identify the AKA. RESULTS: The AKA was identified in 1096 of the 1252 patients who underwent preoperative imaging (87.6%). Hospital mortality was 9.2% (n = 136) in those who underwent OR and 6.4% (n = 62) in those who underwent EVR. The incidence of SCI was 7.3% in the OR group (descending, 4.2%; Ex I, 9.4%; Ex II, 14.0%; Ex III, 14.4%; Ex IV, 4.2 %; Ex V, 7.2%) and 2.9% in the EVR group. The risk factors for SCI in ORs were advanced age, extended repair, emergency, and occluded bilateral hypogastric arteries. In ORs of the aortic segment involving the AKA, having no AKA reconstruction was a significant risk factor for SCI (odds ratio, 2.79, 95% confidence interval, 1.14-6.79; P = .024). CONCLUSIONS: In descending/thoracoabdominal aortic repairs, preoperative AKA identification with its adequate reconstruction or preservation, especially, in ORs of aortic pathologies involving the AKA, would be a useful adjunct for more secure spinal cord protection.