What's in the box? Exploring UK players' experiences of loot boxes in games; the conceptualisation and parallels with gambling.

Loot boxes are a popular mechanic within many video games, but it remains unclear if some forms of loot boxes can be seen of as gambling. However, the perspectives of players are often neglected, such as whether they see them as 'fair' game elements and how closely they feel this aligns with gambling. In this paper, we synthesise a conceptualisation for loot boxes through players' actual experience and explore if there are any parallels with gambling. Twenty-one participants who played video games took part in the research through either an interview or online survey. Thematic analysis suggested that six themes were core to exploring loot boxes: Random Chance Effects, Attitudes Towards Content, Implementation, Parallels with Gambling, Game Design, and The Player. The results suggested both indirect and direct parallels with gambling from the players experiences. Implications of game design and classifying loot boxes as gambling are discussed in relation to game design and risk factors of gambling and purchasing behaviour.

Transtorno de Jogo: contribuição da abordagem psicodinâmica no tratamento / Gambling Disorder: contributions of the psychodynamic approach to treatment / Jeu Pathologique: contributions de l'approche psychodynamique au traitement / Trastorno de Juego: contribución del enfoque psicodinámico al tratamiento

Resumo Jogos de azar podem ser uma atividade de lazer, mas sua prática em excesso pode levar a consequências adversas, como o Transtorno de Jogo. Apesar dos sérios prejuízos provocados por esse quadro, tanto o Transtorno de Jogo em si quanto estratégias de tratamento são pouco conhecidos no Brasil. Este trabalho aborda o Transtorno de Jogo e seu tratamento, tendo como objetivo explicitar a contribuição da abordagem psicodinâmica. São apresentadas as principais hipóteses psicodinâmicas existentes na literatura e tecidas considerações sobre a psicoterapia psicodinâmica realizada em um serviço que atende jogadores em São Paulo, o Programa Ambulatorial do Jogo Patológico (PRO-AMJO) do Instituto de Psiquiatria do Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo (IPq HC-FMUSP). Por fim, alguns exemplos de perfis de jogadores patológicos são apresentados.

Abstract Gambling may be a leisure activity, but overdoing it can lead to adverse consequences such as Gambling Disorder. Despite the serious damage caused by the disorder, both Gambling Disorder and its treatment strategies are little known in Brazil. This study investigates Gambling Disorder and its treatment, emphasizing the contributions of the psychodynamic approach. The paper presents the main psychodynamic hypotheses in the literature and comments on the psychodynamic psychotherapy carried out in facilities treating pathological gamblers in São Paulo, such as the Pathological Gambling Outpatient Program (PRO-AMJO) of the Psychiatric Institute of Hospital das Clínicas (IPq HC-FMUSP). Finally, some examples of pathological gambler profiles are discussed.

Résumé Le jeu de hasard peut être un loisir, mais l'excès peut avoir des conséquences néfastes, comme le Jeu Pathologique. Malgré les graves consequences causés par ce trouble, le Jeu Pathologique et ses stratégies de traitement sont peu connus au Brésil. Cettte étude porte sur la Dépendence au jeu et son traitement, en mettant l'accent sur les contributions de l'approche psychodynamique. L'article présente les principales hypothèses psychodynamiques dans la littérature et reflète sur la psychothérapie psychodynamique réalisée dans les services qui s'occupent de joueurs à São Paulo, telles que le Programma ambulatoire sur la dépendance au jeu (PRO-AMJO) del'Institut de psychiatrie de l'Hospital das clínicas (IPq HC-FMUSP). Enfin, quelques exemples de profils de joueurs pathologiques sont discutés.

Resumen Los juegos de azar pueden ser una actividad de diversión, pero su práctica excesiva puede traer consecuencias adversas como el Trastorno de Juego. A pesar de los graves daños causados por este comportamiento, tanto el Trastorno de Juego en sí como las estrategias de tratamiento son poco conocidos en Brasil. Este trabajo aborda el Trastorno de Juego y su tratamiento, con el objetivo de hacer explícito la contribución del enfoque psicodinámico. Se presentan las principales hipótesis psicodinámicas en la literatura y se hacen consideraciones sobre la psicoterapia psicodinámica realizada en un servicio que atiende a jugadores en São Paulo, como el Programa del Hospital das Clínicas de la Facultad de Medicina de la Universidad de São Paulo (IPq HC-FMUSP). Finalmente, se presentan algunos ejemplos de perfiles de jugadores patológicos.

Problem Gambling Associated with Aripiprazole: A Nested Case-Control Study in a First-Episode Psychosis Program.

BACKGROUND: Aripiprazole has been linked to cases of problem gambling (PBG), but evidence supporting this association remains preliminary. Additionally, data specific to PBG in individuals with first-episode psychosis (FEP) receiving aripiprazole are limited to a few case reports, even though aripiprazole is widely used among this population that might be especially vulnerable to PBG. METHODS: To examine this association, a nested case-control study was conducted in a cohort of 219 patients followed at a FEP program located in the Quebec City, Quebec, Canada, metropolitan area. Fourteen cases meeting the PBG criteria according to the Problem Gambling Severity Index were identified and matched for gender and index date to 56 control subjects. RESULTS: In the univariable conditional logistic regression analysis, the use of aripiprazole was associated with an increased risk of PBG (odds ratio [OR] 15.2; 95% confidence interval [CI] 2.1-670.5). Cases were more likely to have a prior gambling history (either recreational or problematic) than controls at admittance in the program; they were also more frequently in a relationship and employed. After adjustment for age, relationship status, employment and Cluster B personality disorders, the use of aripiprazole remained associated with an increased risk of PBG (OR 8.6 [95% CI 1.5-227.2]). CONCLUSIONS: Findings from this study suggest that FEP patients with a gambling history, problematic or not, may be at increased risk of developing PBG when receiving aripiprazole. They also highlight the importance of systematically screening for PBG all individuals with psychotic disorders, as this comorbidity hinders recovery. While the results also add credence to a causal association between aripiprazole and PBG, further prospective studies are needed to address some of the limitations of this present study.

Gambling Disorder and Childhood Trauma: A Complex Association.

Gambling disorder (GD) is classified as a behavioural addiction and has some phenotypic similarities with substance use disorders (SUDs). Childhood adversity and life stressors are associated with increased risk for SUDs in adulthood. However, there is limited research investigating the association between childhood trauma, stressors and behavioural addictions such as GD. In this case-control cross-sectional study, 31 adult patients with GD were compared to 31 matched healthy controls (HCs) in terms of exposure to early adversity using the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ-SF). In addition, past 12-month stressful life event exposure was assessed using the Life Event Stress Scale (LESS) and investigated as a possible moderator of the relationship between childhood trauma and GD by means of a two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). Logistic regression analyses were used to test if childhood trauma (CTQ-SF) and its subtypes were significant predictors of a diagnosis of GD. Severity of childhood trauma in general, and on all five subtypes, was significantly higher in GD patients compared to HCs. Childhood trauma was a significant predictor of a diagnosis of GD, with physical neglect being the single trauma subtype to significantly increase odds of GD in adulthood. Stressful life events moderated the relationship between childhood trauma and GD, i.e. childhood trauma was significantly higher in GD patients compared to HCs when LESS was low. The findings support a link between childhood trauma and GD, with current stress as a moderating variable, and may be useful for future individualized therapeutic strategies.

Australia's Gambling Epidemic: The Role of Neighbourhood Ethnic Diversity.

Gambling is a popular leisure activity but also a significant public health issue in Australia. The severity of gambling in Australia is characterised by unprecedented gambling expenditures and losses representing the highest gambling rates in the world, which has led to renewed interests in understanding the factors influencing gambling behaviours. We contribute to the debate on the determinants of gambling by providing the first study that examines the impact of ethnic diversity on gambling. Using data from the Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia survey, we find that ethnic diversity is positively associated with gambling. This result is robust to alternative estimation approaches, alternative ways of measuring ethnic diversity and irrespective of whether gambling is measured using the Problem Gambling Severity Index, gambling expenditures or number of gambling activities. Our results also suggest stronger effects of ethnic diversity for problem gamblers compared to gamblers in other risk categories. These results support the need for policies that promote social capital in diverse communities to reduce the risks of social isolation, which is an important motivator of gambling behaviour.

Drugs-Induced Pathological Gambling: An Analysis of Italian Spontaneous Reporting System.

Pathological gambling has been reported as a direct complication of Parkinson's disease and its pharmacological treatment based on dopamine agonists. Moreover, further medications (not dopamine agonists) were associated to the occurrence of gambling disorder. We aim to analyze the spontaneous reports of gambling disorder on the whole Italian territory with a focus on Campania Region (Southern Italy) from January 1st 2002 to July 31st 2018. We analyzed gambling disorder's reports across the 2002-2018 period in the Italian spontaneous reporting database (Rete Nazionale di Farmacovigilanza-RNF), with a focus on Campania region. 94 suspected cases of gambling disorder associated to apomorphine, aripiprazole, cabergoline, levodopa, levodopa and derivatives in association with entacapone/benserazide and carbidopa, pergolide, pramipexole, ropinirole, and rotigotine were reported into the RNF. Of these cases, two related to pramipexole and one to aripiprazole were sent to Campania Pharmacovigilance Regional Centre. Although it is widely recognized that dopamine agonists may induce behavioral disorders, Parkinson's disease is itself associated to pathological gambling, compulsive shopping and eating. Since our results could not clarify the correlation between Parkinson's disease, its pharmacological treatment and pathological gambling, in order to better define this correlation there is a need to conduct further ad hoc observational studies.

The Iowa Gambling Task on HIV-infected subjects.

HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND) are characterized by cognitive, behavioral, and motor dysfunctions, which impact daily functioning and are predictive of poor survival among patients. The diagnosis of HAND is marked by clinically significant declines in multiple domains of neurocognitive functioning. Some patients diagnosed with HAND have social problem; however, higher brain dysfunction is not detected in general neuropsychological assessments and the intelligence quotient may remain unchanged. Impaired decision-making may reduce social and occupational qualities of life. The Iowa Gambling Task (IGT) has been developed as a task to evaluate risk predictions at the time of decision-making. In the present study, 38 HIV-infected patients enrolled in our hospital performed IGT and we investigated whether the results obtained are associated with HAND. The median net IGT score of all HIV-infected subjects was significantly lower than that of healthy controls. Patients diagnosed with HAND accounted for 43.8% of the negative net score group. We elucidated the relationship between the net IGT score and HAND for the first time. We think that IGT is a good tool to detect decision-making impairment for ANI and MND. Careful follow-ups of the progression of HAND and increased awareness among HIV-infected patients and medical care workers of the risk of social behavioral disorders, which negatively impact daily life before they are detected, are needed in order to prevent deteriorations in the quality of life of these patients.

Subjective estimates of uncertainty during gambling and impulsivity after subthalamic deep brain stimulation for Parkinson's disease.

Subthalamic deep brain stimulation (DBS) for Parkinson's disease (PD) may modulate chronometric and instrumental aspects of choice behaviour, including motor inhibition, decisional slowing, and value sensitivity. However, it is not well known whether subthalamic DBS affects more complex aspects of decision-making, such as the influence of subjective estimates of uncertainty on choices. In this study, 38 participants with PD played a virtual casino prior to subthalamic DBS (whilst 'on' medication) and again, 3-months postoperatively (whilst 'on' stimulation). At the group level, there was a small but statistically significant decrease in impulsivity postoperatively, as quantified by the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale (BIS). The gambling behaviour of participants (bet increases, slot machine switches and double or nothing gambles) was associated with this self-reported measure of impulsivity. However, there was a large variance in outcome amongst participants, and we were interested in whether individual differences in subjective estimates of uncertainty (specifically, volatility) were related to differences in pre- and postoperative impulsivity. To examine these individual differences, we fit a computational model (the Hierarchical Gaussian Filter, HGF), to choices made during slot machine game play as well as a simpler reinforcement learning model based on the Rescorla-Wagner formalism. The HGF was superior in accounting for the behaviour of our participants, suggesting that participants incorporated beliefs about environmental uncertainty when updating their beliefs about gambling outcome and translating these beliefs into action. A specific aspect of subjective uncertainty, the participant's estimate of the tendency of the slot machine's winning probability to change (volatility), increased subsequent to DBS. Additionally, the decision temperature of the response model decreased post-operatively, implying greater stochasticity in the belief-to-choice mapping of participants. Model parameter estimates were significantly associated with impulsivity; specifically, increased uncertainty was related to increased postoperative impulsivity. Moreover, changes in these parameter estimates were significantly associated with the maximum post-operative change in impulsivity over a six month follow up period. Our findings suggest that impulsivity in PD patients may be influenced by subjective estimates of uncertainty (environmental volatility) and implicate a role for the subthalamic nucleus in the modulation of outcome certainty. Furthermore, our work outlines a possible approach to characterising those persons who become more impulsive after subthalamic DBS, an intervention in which non-motor outcomes can be highly variable.

Adolescent body dissatisfaction and disordered eating: Predictors of later risky health behaviours.

RATIONALE: Body dissatisfaction is prevalent among teenagers, and may influence the uptake of risky health behaviours. OBJECTIVE: The study assessed the influence of body dissatisfaction on smoking, cannabis use, drug use, self-harm, gambling, and drinking and the mediating role of disordered eating in a population-based sample of British adolescents. METHOD: Participants were 2634 females and 1684 males from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC) cohort. Logistic regression was used to test if body dissatisfaction at 14 years old predicted the onset of risky health behaviours at 21 years old. Mediation analysis tested the mediating role of disordered eating at 16 years old on each risky health behaviour. RESULTS: Among females, body dissatisfaction predicted smoking (OR = 1.40, 95% CI = 1.15, 1.72), cannabis use (OR = 1.20, 95% CI = 1.00, 1.43), drug use (OR = 1.51, 95% CI = 1.20, 1.90), self-harm (OR = 1.44, 95% CI = 1.13, 1.84) and high-risk drinking (OR = 1.41, 95% CI = 1.10, 1.80). Disordered eating symptoms had mediating effects on some behaviours. Among males, body dissatisfaction predicted smoking (OR = 1.44, 95% CI = 1.14, 1.81) and no effect of disordered eating was found on any risky health behaviour. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first prospective study to demonstrate that body dissatisfaction in adolescence predicts the occurrence of several risky health behaviours, and elucidates the mediating role of disordered eating. The findings highlight that body dissatisfaction is a public health concern. Early interventions to promote body satisfaction may reduce the prevalence of later risky health behaviours.

Longitudinal interplay between gambling participation and substance use during late adolescence: A genetically-informed study.

Substance use and gambling participation during adolescence are correlated, both concurrently and over time. It is unclear, however, whether this association can be explained by common underlying genetic vulnerabilities or environmental factors. The present study explored the concurrent and longitudinal associations between substance use and gambling participation and their genetic and environmental underpinnings by late adolescence. Participants were 373 pairs of monozygotic and dizygotic twins. Self-reports of substance use and gambling participation were collected at Ages 17 and 19 years. Results showed concurrent associations between substance use and gambling participation as well as a small, but significant unidirectional longitudinal association over time from substance use to gambling participation. Common genetic factors largely accounted for the concurrent associations at Ages 17 and 19, as well as for the unidirectional longitudinal association between substance use and gambling participation. Substance use and gambling participation share a common genetic component that account for most of their concurrent and longitudinal links during late adolescence. However, these behaviors are also influenced by specific environmental factors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Factors Precipitating Calls to a Help Hotline: A Comparison of Whites, Blacks, and Hispanics.

Studies have found that the main reasons provided by problem gamblers for calling a gambling help hotline are financial, legal, or relationship problems, but no study has looked into whether these motivators vary by ethnicity. In particular, this study sought to find if Hispanics were more likely to call due to relationship problems. Using data gathered by the Florida Council on Compulsive Gambling from problem gamblers calling for help (N = 826), it was found that the most common reason for calling the hotline by all ethnic groups was financial. However, among problem gamblers calling for non-financial reasons Hispanics significantly reported calling for relationship problems and Whites due to legal problems. Blacks did not significantly call for non-financial reasons. Possible implications of these findings for education and reaching out to different ethnic groups regarding problem gambling are discussed.

Predictors of gambling and problem gambling in Victoria, Australia.

In 2016, the gambling habits of a sample of 3361 adults in the state of Victoria, Australia, were surveyed. It was found that a number of factors that were highly correlated with self-reported gambling frequency and gambling problems were not significant predictors of gambling frequency and problem gambling. The major predictors of gambling frequency were the degree to which family members and peers were perceived to gamble, self-reported approval of gambling, the frequency of discussing gambling offline, and the participant's Canadian Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI) score. Age was a significant predictor of gambling frequency for certain types of gambling (e.g. buying lottery tickets). Approximately 91% of the explainable variance in the participant's PGSI score could be explained by just five predictors: Positive Urgency; Frequency of playing poker machines at pubs, hotels or sporting clubs; Participation in online discussions of betting on gaming tables at casinos; Frequency of gambling on the internet, and Overestimating the chances of winning. Based on these findings, suggestions are made as to how gambling-related harm can be reduced.

Traumatic brain injury as an independent risk factor for problem gambling: a matched case-control study.

PURPOSE: To assess whether traumatic brain injury (TBI) increases the risks of subsequent problem gambling. METHODS: We conducted a matched case-control analysis of adults in Ontario, Canada. The study included those who self-reported their gambling activities in the Canadian Community Health Survey 2007-2008. Using Problem Gambling Severity Index, we defined cases as those who were problem gamblers and controls who were recreational gamblers. Cases were matched to controls 1:2 using propensity scores based on demographics, prior mental health, and self-reported behaviours. The main predictor was prior TBI defined as requiring emergency care and identified using ICD-10 codes from administrative health databases. We estimated the likelihood of prior TBI in problem gamblers compared to controls using conditional logistic regression. RESULTS: Of 30,652 survey participants, 16,002 (53%) reported gambling activity of whom 14,910 (49%) were recreational gamblers and 4% (n = 1092) were problem gamblers. A total of 1469 respondents (5%) had a prior TBI. Propensity score matching yielded 2038 matched pairs with 1019 cases matched to 2037 controls. Case-control analysis showed a significant association between prior TBI and subsequent problem gambling (odds ratio 1.27, 95% confidence interval 1.07-1.51, P = 0.007). The increased risk was mostly apparent in men aged 35 to 64 years who reported alcohol use or smoking. The relative risk of problem gambling in those with two or more TBIs equated to an odds ratio of 2.04 (95% confidence interval 1.05-3.99). CONCLUSIONS: We found that a prior TBI was associated with an increased subsequent risk of problem gambling. Our findings support more awareness, screening, and treating problem gambling risks among TBI patients.

Genetic and environmental influences on gambling disorder liability: a replication and combined analysis of two twin studies.

BACKGROUND: Gambling disorder (GD), recognized in Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Version 5 (DSM-5) as a behavioral addiction, is associated with a range of adverse outcomes. However, there has been little research on the genetic and environmental influences on the development of this disorder. This study reports results from the largest twin study of GD conducted to date. METHODS: Replication and combined analyses were based on samples of 3292 (mean age 31.8, born 1972-79) and 4764 (mean age 37.7, born 1964-71) male, female, and unlike-sex twin pairs from the Australian Twin Registry. Univariate biometric twin models estimated the proportion of variation in the latent GD liability that could be attributed to genetic, shared environmental, and unique environmental factors, and whether these differed quantitatively or qualitatively for men and women. RESULTS: In the replication study, when using a lower GD threshold, there was evidence for significant genetic (60%; 95% confidence interval (CI) 45-76%) and unique environmental (40%; 95% CI 24-56%), but not shared environmental contributions (0%; 95% CI 0-0%) to GD liability; this did not significantly differ from the original study. In the combined analysis, higher GD thresholds (such as one consistent with DSM-5 GD) and a multiple threshold definitions of GD yielded similar results. There was no evidence for quantitative or qualitative sex differences in the liability for GD. CONCLUSIONS: Twin studies of GD are few in number but they tell a remarkably similar story: substantial genetic and unique environmental influences, with no evidence for shared environmental contributions or sex differences in GD liability.

Behavioral Addictions as Mental Disorders: To Be or Not To Be?

Should excessive and problematic engagement in nonsubstance use behaviors be mental disorders? The fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) repositioned gambling disorder in the substance use disorders section and introduced Internet gaming disorder in the research appendix; the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11) is also considering it. This article outlines pros and cons of considering behavioral addictions as mental disorders and also reviews the DSM-5 decision-making processes. It focuses on three conditions: gambling disorder, Internet gaming disorder (IGD), and Internet addiction (IA). We detail assessment methods and prevalence rates for these conditions and outline psychiatric comorbidities, demographic and biological risk factors, and promising treatment approaches. We also briefly discuss other putative behavioral addictions: eating/food, sex, exercise, shopping, and tanning "addictions." Overall, data are inconclusive, and consistent terminology and methodology are needed to define and evaluate these conditions more fully prior to considering them mental disorders.

Uncommon and/or bizarre features of dementia: Part III.

Clinical neurologists have long recognized that dementia can present as atypical or variant syndromes/symptoms. This study aimed at describing uncommon or bizarre symptoms/syndromes observed in patients suffering from dementia. Medline and Google scholar searches were conducted for relevant articles, chapters, and books published before 2018. Search terms used included compulsion, dementia, extracampine hallucination, disordered gambling, humour, and obsession. Publications found through this indexed search were reviewed for further relevant references. The uncommon/bizarre feature of dementia was described as case reports and there were no systematic investigations.

Identifying at-risk profiles and protective factors for problem gambling: A longitudinal study across adolescence and early adulthood.

Past studies have identified various risk and protective factors for problem gambling (PG). However, no study has examined the interplay between these factors using a combination of person-centered and variable-centered approaches embedded within a longitudinal design. The present study aimed to (a) identify distinct profiles in early adolescence based on a set of risk factors commonly associated with PG (impulsivity, depression, anxiety, drug-alcohol use, aggressiveness, and antisociality), (b) explore the difference in reported gambling problems between these profiles during midadolescence and early adulthood, and (c) identify family- and peer-related variables that could operate as protective or compensatory factors in this context. Two samples were used: (a) a population sample (N = 1,033) living in low socioeconomic-status neighborhoods and (b) a population sample (N = 3,017) representative of students attending Quebec schools. Latent profile analyses were conducted to identify at-risk profiles based on individual risk factors measured at age 12 years. Negative binomial regression models were estimated to compare profiles in terms of their reported gambling problems at ages 16 and 23. Finally, family- and peer-related variables measured at age 14 were included to test their protective or compensatory role with respect to the link between at-risk profiles and gambling problems. Four profiles were identified: well-adjusted, internalizing, externalizing, and comorbid. Compared to the well-adjusted profile, the externalizing and comorbid profiles reported more gambling problems at ages 16 and 23, but the internalizing profile did not differ significantly. Various protective and compensatory factors emerged for each profile at both time points. (PsycINFO Database Record

Psychological Vulnerability and Gambling in Later Life.

OBJECTIVES: Because behavioral problems often emerge from maladaptive coping methods, we investigated whether unmet basic psychological needs evolve toward a level of psychological vulnerability that puts older adults who gamble at risk for becoming problem gamblers. METHODS: Data from a community sample of 379 adults ages 60 and above were analyzed using structural equation modeling. Participants responded to items regarding their demographics, gambling frequency, engagement in at-risk gambling behaviors, and the extent to which their basic psychological needs were met. RESULTS: Satisfaction of basic psychological needs among older adults who gamble was negatively associated with their being at risk for developing a gambling problem. Satisfaction of basic psychological needs also mediated the negative effect of socioeconomic status on at-risk gambling behavior. CONCLUSION: Social workers should become mindful of how older adults, who are confronting psychological vulnerabilities in later life, might well turn to gambling as a maladaptive coping mechanism.As per journal style, abstract must not exceed100 words. Please amend accordingly.

Gambling disorder: an integrative review of animal and human studies.

Gambling disorder (GD), previously called pathological gambling and classified as an impulse control disorder in DSM-III and DSM-IV, has recently been reclassified as an addictive disorder in the DSM-5. It is widely recognized as an important public health problem associated with substantial personal and social costs, high rates of psychiatric comorbidity, poor physical health, and elevated suicide rates. A number of risk factors have been identified, including some genetic polymorphisms. Animal models have been developed in order to study the underlying neural basis of GD. Here, we discuss recent advances in our understanding of the risk factors, disease course, and pathophysiology. A focus on a phenotype-based dissection of the disorder is included in which known neural correlates from animal and human studies are reviewed. Finally, current treatment approaches are discussed, as well as future directions for GD research.

Genetic and environmental origins of gambling behaviors from ages 18 to 25: A longitudinal twin family study.

Gambling behaviors tend to increase in prevalence from late adolescence to young adulthood, and the underlying genetic and environmental influences during this period remain largely understudied. We examined the genetic and environmental influences on gambling behaviors contributing to stability and change from ages 18 to 25 in a longitudinal, behavioral genetic mixed-sex twin study design. Participants were enrolled in the Minnesota Twin Family Study. A range of gambling behaviors (maximum frequency, average frequency, money lost, and gambling problems) were assessed at ages 18 and 25. The results of our study support the following conclusions: (a) the genetic and environmental factors impacting a range of gambling behaviors are largely similar in men and women, (b) genetic factors increase in influence from 18 to 25 (21% at age 18 to 57% at age 25), (c) shared environmental factors are influential at age 18, but tend to decrease from ages 18 to 25 (55% at age 18 to 10% at age 25), and (d) nonshared environmental influences are similarly significant and are small to moderate in magnitude at both ages. The findings add to a small yet important research area regarding determinants of youth gambling behaviors and have the potential to inform prevention and intervention efforts. (PsycINFO Database Record