Optimizing the releasing strategy used for the biological control of the sugarcane borer Diatraea saccharalis by Trichogramma galloi with computer modeling and simulation.

One of the challenges in augmentative biological control programs is the definition of releasing strategy for natural enemies, especially when macro-organisms are involved. Important information about the density of insects to be released and frequency of releases usually requires a great number of experiments, which implies time and space that are not always readily available. In order to provide science-based responses for these questions, computational models offer an in silico option to simulate different biocontrol agent releasing scenarios. This allows decision-makers to focus their efforts to more feasible options. The major insect pest in sugarcane crops is the sugarcane borer Diatraea saccharalis, which can be managed using the egg parasitoid Trichogramma galloi. The current strategy consists in releasing 50,000 insects per hectare for each release, in three weekly releases. Here, we present a simulation model to check whether this releasing strategy is optimal against the sugarcane borer. A sensitive analysis revealed that the population of the pest is more affected by the number of releases rather than by the density of parasitoids released. Only the number of releases demonstrated an ability to drive the population curve of the pest towards a negative growth. For example, releasing a total of 600,000 insects per hectare in three releases led to a lower pest control efficacy that releasing only 250,000 insects per hectare in five releases. A higher number of releases covers a wider range of time, increasing the likelihood of releasing parasitoids at the correct time given that the egg stage is short. Based on these results, it is suggested that, if modifications to the releasing strategy are desired, increasing the number of releases from 3 to 5 at weekly intervals is most likely preferable.

Effects of climate change on Lepidoptera pollen loads and their pollination services in space and time.

Shifts in flowering time among plant communities as a result of climate change, including extreme weather events, are a growing concern. These plant phenological changes may affect the quantity and quality of food sources for specialized insect pollinators. Plant-pollinator interactions are threatened by habitat alterations and biodiversity loss, and changes in these interactions may lead to declines in flower visitors and pollination services. Most prior research has focused on short-term plant-pollinator interactions, which do not accurately capture changes in pollination services. Here, we characterized long-term plant-pollinator interactions and identified potential risks to specialized butterfly species due to habitat loss, fragmented landscapes, and changes in plant assemblages. We used 21 years of historical data from museum specimens to track the potential effects of direct and indirect changes in precipitation, temperature, monsoons, and wildfires on plant-pollinator mutualism in the Great Basin and Sierra Nevada. We found decreased pollen richness associated with butterflies within sites, as well as an increase in pollen grain abundance of drought-tolerant plants, particularly in the past 10 years. Moreover, increased global temperatures and the intensity and frequency of precipitation and wildfires were negatively correlated with pollen diversity. Our findings have important implications for understanding plant-pollinator interactions and the pollination services affected by global warming.

Identification of the female sex pheromone of Bastilla arctotaenia (Lepidoptera: Erebidae).

(3Z,6Z,9Z)-3,6,9-henicosatriene was identified as a major component of female sex pheromone of Bastilla arctotaenia (Lepidoptera: Erebidae), a pest of cultivated roses, by gas chromatograph-electroantennographic detector( GC-EAD) and gas chromatograph/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) analyses. The single (3Z,6Z,9Z)-3,6,9-henicosatriene (1.0 mg/lure) successfully attracted B. arctotaenia males in the field.

Structure, Synthesis, and Bioassays of Sex Pheromone for Pyrausta machaeralis (Lepidoptera: Crambidae).

The leaf skeletonizer, Pyrausta machaeralis (Lepidoptera: Crambidae), is a serious insect pest of teak (Tectona grandis) in China. The application of insect pheromones is widely applied as an environmentally friendly technology for integrated pest management (IPM). In the present study, crude extracts of sex pheromone glands of calling P. machaeralis females were collected and then analyzed using gas chromatography/electroantennographic detection (GC/EAD) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The combination of infrared spectroscopy (IR) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectrometry was used for structure identification. Afterward, their electrophysiological and behavioral activity was evaluated in the laboratory and field. Herein, we eventually determined two active components, E-11-tetradecenyl acetate (E11-14:Ac) and Z-11-tetradecenyl acetate (Z11-14:Ac), at a ratio of 96:4, as the sex pheromone of P. machaeralis. The identification of sex pheromones would facilitate the development of efficient strategies for monitoring and controlling the field populations of P. machaeralis.

Identification of sex pheromone in Macdunnoughia crassisigna Warren (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) and field optimization of the sex attractant.

BACKGROUND: Sex pheromones have proven to be a viable tool for monitoring and controlling pests and is an important part of integrated pest management (IPM). The noctuid moth Macdunnoughia crassisigna Warren poses a significant threat as a defoliator pest, impacting soybean and cruciferous vegetable production and quality in East Asia. However, a lack of comprehensive knowledge about its sexual chemical signaling hampers the development of semiochemical-based IPM approaches for M. crassisigna. RESULTS: We first determined the mating rhythms of M. crassisigna. We then collected pheromones from the sex glands of virgin females at the mating peak and analyzed their components using gas chromatography-electroantennogram detection analysis. The results showed that three components elicited significant electrophysiological responses in male antennae. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis characterized these components as (Z)-7-dodecene acetate (Z7-12:OAc), (Z)-9-tetradecene acetate (Z9-14:OAc), and (Z)-11-hexadecen-1-ol (Z11-16:OH). Further field experiments indicated that the mixture of Z7-12:OAc and Z9-14:OAc at a ratio of 3:1 displayed significant attractivity to males, confirming its role as a putative sex pheromone of M. crassisigna. Long-term monitoring tests showed that traps baited with these pheromone lures effectively mirrored the population dynamics of M. crassisigna. CONCLUSION: This study successfully identified and validated the sex pheromone released by female M. crassisigna and formulated potent sex lures for field-based pest monitoring. These findings enriched our understanding of chemical communication in Noctuidae and laid a foundation for developing practical monitoring and control methods against M. crassisigna. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Gymnandrosoma aurantianum (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae): Calling Rhythm and Effect of Age on Female Sex Pheromone Titer and Male Antennal Responses.

The macadamia nut borer, Gymnandrosoma aurantianum Lima (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), is the main pest of Macadamia integrifolia Maiden & Betche (Proteales: Proteaceae) in Central America. Despite its importance, there is little information on its reproductive behavior. We studied the calling behavior and effect of age on female sex pheromone production and male antennal response to the pheromone. Calling behavior of G. aurantianum females occurred at the onset of scotophase, between 17:00 and 20:00 h. The mean time spent calling was 64 min. It was observed that 30% of the 50 females exhibited a calling posture characterized by extrusion of the pheromone gland from the tip of the abdomen and they spread their wings slightly. Female age had no influence on the sex pheromone production, while male antennal response increased with age and pheromone dosage. The information obtained in this work contributes to understanding the sexual behavior of G. aurantianum and thus to the creation of strategies to control this important pest in macadamia.

Better Together: Volatile-Mediated Intraguild Effects on the Preference of Tuta absoluta and Trialeurodes vaporariorum for Tomato Plants.

Plant-herbivore interactions have been extensively studied in tomato plants and their most common pests. Tomato plant chemical defenses, both constitutive and inducible, play a role in mediating these interactions. Damaged tomato plants alter their volatile profiles, affecting herbivore preferences between undamaged and damaged plants. However, previous studies on tomato volatiles and herbivore preferences have yielded conflicting results, both in the volatile chemistry itself as well as in the attraction/repellent herbivore response. This study revisits the volatile-mediated interactions between tomato plants and two of their main herbivores: the leafminer Tuta absoluta and the whitefly Trialeurodes vaporariorum. Tomato plant volatiles were analyzed before and after damage by each of these herbivores, and the preference for oviposition (T. absoluta) and settling (T. vaporariorum) on undamaged and damaged plants was assessed both after conspecific and heterospecific damage. We found that both insects consistently preferred damaged plants over undamaged plants. The emission of herbivore-induced plant volatiles (HIPVs) increased after T. absoluta damage but decreased after T. vaporariorum damage. While some of our findings are in line with previous reports, T. absoluta preferred to oviposit on plants damaged by conspecifics, which differs from earlier studies. A comparison of HIPVs emitted after damage by T. absoluta and T. vaporariorum revealed differences in up- or down-regulation, as well as significant variations in specific compounds (12 for T. absoluta and 26 for T. vaporariorum damaged-plants). Only two compounds, ß-caryophyllene and tetradecane, significantly varied because of damage by either herbivore, in line with the overall variation of the HIPV blend. Differences in HIPVs and herbivore preferences may be attributed to the distinct feeding habits of both herbivores, which activate different defensive pathways in plants. The plant's challenge in simultaneously activating both defensive pathways may explain the preference for heterospecific damaged plants found in this study, which are also in line with our own observations in greenhouses.

Field Confirmation of (Z)-9-Heptacosene and (3Z,6Z,9Z)-Tricosatriene as Key Sex Pheromone Components of Korean Conogethes punctiferalis Guenée (Lepidoptera: Crambidae).

Recently, insufficient attractiveness of Conogethes punctiferalis Guenée adult males to sex pheromone, -(E)-10-hexadecenal and (Z)-10-hexadecenal, has been reported. To identify the other essential components of sex pheromone, male and female body extracts were analyzed. Two hydrocarbon components, (Z)-9-heptacosene (Z9-27:HC) and (3Z,6Z,9Z)-tricosatriene (Z3,Z6,Z9-23:HC), were identified from only female body extract. There was a significant difference in the electroantennogram (EAG) response of male antennae to Z3,Z6,Z9-23:HC and Z9-27:HC at all test concentrations compared to the response to the hexane control. In field attraction testing, the addition of Z9-27:HC and Z3,Z6,Z9-23:HC to binary aldehyde pheromones significantly increased trap catches of C. punctiferalis male adults. Based on the female and male body extract analysis and field attraction test, Z9-27:HC and Z3,Z6,Z9-23:HC were determined to be other essential sex pheromone components of the Korean C. punctiferalis population. No significant difference was observed in the number of male captures between the bucket trap and delta trap. Pheromone traps with a color close to yellow shade attracted more male adults than traps with a color close to blue shade.

Baculoviruses hijack the visual perception of their caterpillar hosts to induce climbing behaviour thus promoting virus dispersal.

Baculoviruses can induce climbing behaviour in their caterpillar hosts to ensure they die at elevated positions to enhance virus transmission, providing an excellent model to study parasitic manipulation of host behaviour. Here, we demonstrate that climbing behaviour occurred mostly during daylight hours, and that the height at death of Helicoverpa armigera single nucleopolyhedrovirus (HearNPV)-infected larvae increases with the height of the light source. Phototaxic and electroretinogram (ERG) responses were enhanced after HearNPV-infection in host larvae, and ablation of stemmata in infected larvae prevented both phototaxis and climbing behaviour. Through transcriptome and quantitative PCR, we confirmed that two opsin genes (a blue light-sensitive gene, HaBL; and a long wave-sensitive gene, HaLW) as well as the TRPL (transient receptor potential-like channel protein) gene, all integral to the host's visual perception pathway, were significantly upregulated after HearNPV infection. Knockout of HaBL, HaLW, or TRPL genes using the CRISPR/Cas9 system resulted in significantly reduced ERG responses, phototaxis, and climbing behaviour in HearNPV-infected larvae. These results reveal that HearNPV alters the expression of specific genes to hijack host visual perception at fundamental levels-photoreception and phototransduction-in order to induce climbing behaviour in host larvae.

Isolation, screening and identification of key components having intense insect repellent activity against Plodia interpunctella from four different medicinal plant materials.

BACKGROUND: Global warming and the indiscriminate use of pesticides have increased the propagation of the stored-product insect pests, leading to enormous losses in the agriculture and food industries. The most used insect repellents are synthetic derivatives; however, these have an adverse effect on human health as well as on the environment. Therefore, we attempted to find materials with insect repellent activity in natural products. The present study aimed to identify the single chemical component with intense insect repellent activity in extracts from four different Oriental medicinal plant materials: (i) Anethum graveolens L. (dill) seeds; (ii) Artemisia capillaris Thunb. (capillary wormwood) leaves; (iii) smoked Prunus mume Siebold & Zucc. (mume) fruits; and (iv) Rhus javanica L. (galls). RESULTS: As a result of the bioassay-guided fractionation of each extract against the Plodia interpunctella, stored-product insect, the n-hexane fraction of dill seeds extract was confirmed as the optimal fraction between all of the fractions. In total, 32 chemical components were identified from the n-hexane fraction of dill seeds by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis, and the two main components were dillapiole (47.51%) and carvone (26.76%). Of the two components, dillapiole was confirmed as the key component playing an essential role in insect repellent activity. CONCLUSION: Our study suggests that dillapiole has the potential to be used as a natural insect repellent for the control of P. interpunctella infestation in agricultural and food products during distribution and storage. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.

Dietary influence on modulation of Helicoverpa armigera oral secretion composition leading to differential regulation of tomato plant defense.

Little is known about how different plant-based diets influence the insect herbivores' oral secretion (OS) composition and eventually the plant defense responses. We analyzed the OS composition of the generalist Lepidopteran insect, Helicoverpa armigera feeding on the host plant tomato (OSH), non-host plant capsicum (OSNH), and artificial diet (OSAD) using Liquid Chromatography-Quadrupole Time of Flight Mass Spectrometry. Higher numbers and levels of alkaloids and terpenoids were observed in OSH and OSNH, respectively while OSAD was rich in phospholipids. Interestingly, treatment of H. armigera OSAD, OSH and OSNH on wounded tomato leaves showed differential expression of (i) genes involved in JA and SA biosynthesis and their responsive genes, and (ii) biosynthetic pathway genes of chlorogenic acid (CGA) and trehalose, which exhibited increased accumulation along with several other plant defensive metabolites. Specifically, high levels of CGA were detected after OSH and OSNH treatments in tomato leaves. There was higher expression of the genes involved in phenylpropanoid biosynthesis, which may lead to the increased accumulation of CGA and related metabolites. In the insect bioassay, CGA significantly inhibited H. armigera larval growth. Our results underline the differential accumulation of plant and insect OS metabolites and identified potential plant metabolite(s) affecting insect growth and development.

Effect of Lonomia obliqua Venom on Human Neutrophils.

The significant incidence of deforestation in South America culminates in the contact of humans with typical forests species. Among these species, one may highlight Lonomia obliqua caterpillar, which, when touched by humans, can poison them through their bristles. Therefore, better acknowledging the mechanisms involved in envenomation caused by Lonomia obliqua caterpillar bristle extract (LOCBE) may contribute to further treatments. Recently, we demonstrated that LOCBE induces a pro-inflammatory profile in endothelial cells; thus, we decided to investigate the effects of LOCBE on human polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMN), which are the first leukocytes that migrate to the inflammatory focus. Our results showed that treatment with LOCBE induced PMN chemotaxis together with alterations in actin cytoskeleton and focal adhesion kinase (FAK) activation, favoring migration. Concurrently, LOCBE induced PMN adhesion to matrix proteins, such as collagen IV, fibronectin, and fibrinogen. Moreover, we observed that LOCBE attenuated PMN apoptosis and increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) production together with nuclear factor kB (NF-κB) activation-a redox-sensitive transcription factor-as well as interleukin (IL)-1ß and IL-8 release. We call attention to the ROS-dependent effect of LOCBE on increased cell migration once an antioxidant treatment reverted it. In summary, we report that LOCBE activates PMN, inducing pro-inflammatory responses modulated by ROS.

Exploring bycatch diversity of organisms in whole genome sequencing of Erebidae moths (Lepidoptera).

Models estimate that up to 80% of all butterfly and moth species host vertically transmitted endosymbiotic microorganisms, which can affect the host fitness, metabolism, reproduction, population dynamics, and genetic diversity, among others. The supporting empirical data are however currently highly biased towards the generally more colourful butterflies, and include less information about moths. Additionally, studies of symbiotic partners of Lepidoptera predominantly focus on the common bacterium Wolbachia pipientis, while infections by other inherited microbial partners have more rarely been investigated. Here, we mine the whole genome sequence data of 47 species of Erebidae moths, with the aims to both inform on the diversity of symbionts potentially associated with this Lepidoptera group, and discuss the potential of metagenomic approaches to inform on host associated microbiome diversity. Based on the result of Kraken2 and MetaPhlAn2 analyses, we found clear evidence of the presence of Wolbachia in four species. Our result also suggests the presence of three other bacterial symbionts (Burkholderia spp., Sodalis spp. and Arsenophonus spp.) in three other moth species. Additionally, we recovered genomic material from bracovirus in about half of our samples. The detection of the latter, usually found in mutualistic association to braconid parasitoid wasps, may inform on host-parasite interactions that take place in the natural habitat of the Erebidae moths, suggesting either contamination with material from species of the host community network, or horizontal transfer of members of the microbiome between interacting species.

Effect of Artificial Diet on Immature Stage of the Great Eggfly, Hypolimnas bolina (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae).

<b>Background and Objective:</b> One of the Nymphalidae butterfly species found in West Sumatra in <i>Hypolimnas bolina</i>. Currently, research on the artificial diet for the Nymphalidae butterfly is relatively rare in Padang, West Sumatra. The objectives of this study were to analyze the preferences of <i>H. bolina</i> larvae, duration of the immature stage and mortality of <i>H. bolina</i> in artificial diet treatment. <b>Materials and Methods:</b> Some biological aspects of <i>H. bolina</i> in corresponding to artificial diet and its effect were investigated in the laboratory. <b>Results:</b> The result showed that there was no significant difference in the frequency of visits of the larvae in the two diet treatments namely natural (<i>Laportea interrupta</i> leaves) and artificial diets (Sig = 0.289, p>0.05) but the duration of the visit of <i>H. bolina</i> larvae was significantly different (Sig = 0.000, p<0.05). The visit duration of the immature stage of <i>H. bolina </i>was significantly different, except the prepupa and pupal stage. There was no mortality of instar larvae and prepupa stage observed in both of the two-diet treatments. However, the mortality of pupae in an artificial diet was 4%. Of the total of 24 individual larvae fed with artificial diet, all of them successfully emerged, consisted of 12 males and 12 females but there was one male with abnormal wings. The average living period in the artificial diet of imago was 14.82 days for males and 16.77 days for a female. The average larval weight was no significant difference (Sig = 0.981, p>0.05) but the average pupal weight of the natural diet was slightly higher than the artificial diet. <b>Conclusion:</b> The formulation of an artificial diet is suitable for <i>H. bolina</i> larvae based on the results of immature mortality and adult emergences. Therefore, the formulation of an artificial diet is suitable for <i>H. bolina</i> with its composition almost similar to <i>L. interrupta</i> leaves (natural diet).

Comparative analyses of responses to exogenous and endogenous antiherbivore elicitors enable a forward genetics approach to identify maize gene candidates mediating sensitivity to herbivore-associated molecular patterns.

Crop damage by herbivorous insects remains a significant contributor to annual yield reductions. Following attack, maize (Zea mays) responds to herbivore-associated molecular patterns (HAMPs) and damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), activating dynamic direct and indirect antiherbivore defense responses. To define underlying signaling processes, comparative analyses between plant elicitor peptide (Pep) DAMPs and fatty acid-amino acid conjugate (FAC) HAMPs were conducted. RNA sequencing analysis of early transcriptional changes following Pep and FAC treatments revealed quantitative differences in the strength of response yet a high degree of qualitative similarity, providing evidence for shared signaling pathways. In further comparisons of FAC and Pep responses across diverse maize inbred lines, we identified Mo17 as part of a small subset of lines displaying selective FAC insensitivity. Genetic mapping for FAC sensitivity using the intermated B73 × Mo17 population identified a single locus on chromosome 4 associated with FAC sensitivity. Pursuit of multiple fine-mapping approaches further narrowed the locus to 19 candidate genes. The top candidate gene identified, termed FAC SENSITIVITY ASSOCIATED (ZmFACS), encodes a leucine-rich repeat receptor-like kinase (LRR-RLK) that belongs to the same family as a rice (Oryza sativa) receptor gene previously associated with the activation of induced responses to diverse Lepidoptera. Consistent with reduced sensitivity, ZmFACS expression was significantly lower in Mo17 as compared to B73. Transient heterologous expression of ZmFACS in Nicotiana benthamiana resulted in a significantly increased FAC-elicited response. Together, our results provide useful resources for studying early elicitor-induced antiherbivore responses in maize and approaches to discover gene candidates underlying HAMP sensitivity in grain crops.

Effects of brief exposure to high temperatures on the survival and fecundity of Athetis lepigone (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae).

In Huang-Huai-Hai Summer Corn Region of China, brief periods of high summer temperatures have been reported with increasing frequency in recent years. Athetis lepigone is a cosmopolitan insect which causes severe damage on summer corn seedlings. To understand how high summer temperatures may affect the population dynamics of A. lepigone, we exposed different developmental stages (1, 2 and 4-day old eggs; 1, 6, 12 and 18-day old larvae; 1, 3 and 6-day old pupae; and 1 and 2-day old female and male adults) to 41 °C for periods of various length (0.5, 1, 2, 4 and 6 h): The rearing temperature (constant 26 °C) was used as control. After heat treatment, all individuals were transferred to a 26 °C climate chamber for further development. The effects on immediate survival, maturation success to adulthood, and female fecundity were studied. Eggs, young larvae, late pupae and newly emerged adults had relatively higher immediate survival rates than the other experimental groups. Heat treatment at the egg and larval stages had no impact on development to adulthood and on female fecundity, while it significantly reduced the survival rate of larvae but not of eggs. Brief exposure to high temperature during the early pupal stage and as adults depressed female fecundity whereas exposure during the late pupal stage had no effect.

Phenotypic plasticity in plant defense across life stages: Inducibility, transgenerational induction, and transgenerational priming in wild radish.

As they develop, many plants deploy shifts in antiherbivore defense allocation due to changing costs and benefits of their defensive traits. Plant defenses are known to be primed or directly induced by herbivore damage within generations and across generations by long-lasting epigenetic mechanisms. However, little is known about the differences between life stages of epigenetically inducible defensive traits across generations. To help fill this knowledge gap, we conducted a multigenerational experiment to determine whether defense induction in wild radish plants was reflected in chromatin modifications (DNA methylation); we then examined differences between seedlings and reproductive plants in current and transgenerational plasticity in chemical (glucosinolates) and physical (trichomes) defenses in this species. Herbivory triggered genome methylation both in targeted plants and their offspring. Within one generation, both defenses were highly inducible at the seedling stage, but only chemical defenses were inducible in reproductive plants. Across generations, herbivory experienced by mother plants caused strong direct induction of physical defenses in their progeny, with effects lasting from seedling to reproductive stages. For chemical defenses, however, this transgenerational induction was evident only in adults. Transgenerational priming was observed in physical and chemical defenses, particularly in adult plants. Our results show that transgenerational plasticity in plant defenses in response to herbivore offense differs for physical and chemical defense and changes across plant life stages.

A study of ladder-like silk foothold for the locomotion of bagworms.

While walking on horizontal substrates, caterpillars skilfully engage all their legs, including three pairs of thoracic legs and a maximum of five pairs of prolegs, to move in a flexible wave-like motion. Such locomotory behaviours, represented by 'crawling' and 'inching' motions, have widely inspired the development of locomotion systems in soft robotics. However, bagworms are unable to use their prolegs for walking because these are always accommodated in a portable bag; thus, they are unable to walk using such general locomotory behaviours. Indeed, how they walk with only three pairs of thoracic legs is unknown at present. In this study, we show that bagworms construct a ladder-like foothold using their silk to walk without using prolegs. This enables them to walk not only on horizontal floor surfaces but also on wall and ceiling surfaces, even those with slippery or smooth surfaces. They construct the foothold by spinning a continuous silk thread in a zigzag manner and controlling the discharge of adhesive to attach the folded parts of the silk to a substrate. Discovery of this elaborate silk utilisation technique offers fresh insights into the diversity of silk use in lepidopteran larvae and provides potential designs for robot locomotion systems.

High-Throughput Feeding Bioassay for Lepidoptera Larvae.

Finding plant cultivars that are resistant or tolerant against lepidopteran pests, takes time, effort and is costly. We present here a high throughput leaf-disk consumption assay system, to screen plants for resistance or chemicals for their deterrence. A webcam capturing images at regular intervals can follow the feeding activities of 150 larvae placed into individual cages. We developed a computer program running under an open source image analysis program to analyze and measure the surface of each leaf disk over time. We further developed new statistical procedures to analyze the time course of the feeding activities of the larvae and to compare them between treatments. As a test case, we compared how European corn borer larvae respond to a commercial antifeedant containing azadirachtin, and to quinine, which is a bitter alkaloid for many organisms. As expected, increasing doses of azadirachtin reduced and delayed feeding. However, quinine was poorly effective at the range of concentrations tested (10-5 M to 10-2 M). The model cage, the camera holder, the plugins, and the R scripts are freely available, and can be modified according to the users' needs.

Plasticity of cold hardiness in the eastern spruce budworm, Choristoneura fumiferana.

High latitude insect populations must cope with extreme conditions, particularly low temperatures. Insects use a variety of cold hardiness mechanisms to withstand this temperature stress, and these can drive geographic distributions through overwintering mortality. The degree of cold hardiness can be altered by two evolved responses: phenotypic plasticity and local adaptation. Phenotypic plasticity can occur within or between generations (transgenerational plasticity; TGP), and local adaptation can evolve through directional selection in response to regional climatic differences. We used the eastern spruce budworm, Choristoneura fumiferana (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) as a model to explore the role that variable winter temperatures play in inducing two aspects of plasticity in cold hardiness: TGP and local adaptation in phenotypic plasticity. This species is one of the most destructive boreal forest pests in North America, therefore accurately predicting overwintering survival is essential for effective management. While we found no evidence of TGP in cold hardiness, there was a long term fitness cost to larvae that experienced repeated cold exposures. We also found evidence of local adaptation in both seasonal and short-term plasticity of cold hardiness, as our more northerly populations that would experience lower overwintering temperatures had more plastic responses to cold exposure. These findings provide evidence for the importance of phenotypic plasticity and local adaptation when modelling species distributions.