IL-10-/- Enhances DCs Immunity Against Chlamydia psittaci Infection via OX40L/NLRP3 and IDO/Treg Pathways.

Chlamydia psittaci (C. psittaci) is a common zoonotic agent that affects both poultry and humans. Interleukin 10 (IL-10) is an anti-inflammatory factor produced during chlamydial infection, while dendritic cells (DCs) are powerful antigen-presenting cells that induce a primary immune response in the host. However, IL-10 and DCs regulatory mechanisms in C. psittaci infection remain elusive. In vivo and in vitro investigations of the regulatory mechanisms were performed. IL-10-/- mice, conditional DCs depletion mice (zinc finger dendritic cell-diphtheria toxin receptor [zDC-DTR]), and double-deficient mice (DD, IL-10-/-/zDCDTR/DTR) were intranasally infected with C. psittaci. The results showed that more than 90% of IL-10-/- mice, 70% of wild-type mice, and 60% of double-deficient mice survived, whereas all zDC-DTR mice died. A higher lymphocyte proliferation index was found in the IL-10 inhibitor mice and IL-10-/- mice. Moreover, severe lesions and high bacterial loads were detected in the zDC-DTR mice compared with double-deficient mice. In vitro studies revealed increased OX40-OX40 ligand (OX40-OX40L) activation and CD4+T cell proliferation. Besides, the expression of indoleamine 2, 3-dioxygenase (IDO), and regulatory T cells were significantly reduced in the co-culture system of CD4+ T cells and IL-10-/- DCs in C. psittaci infection. Additionally, the activation of the NLR family pyrin domain-containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome increased to facilitate the apoptosis of DCs, leading to rapid clearance of C. psittaci. Our study showed that IL-10-/- upregulated the function of deficient DCs by activating OX40-OX40L, T cells, and the NLPR3 inflammasome, and inhibiting IDO, and regulatory T cells. These effects enhanced the survival rate of mice and C. psittaci clearance. Our research highlights the mechanism of IL-10 interaction with DCs, OX40-OX40L, and the NLPR3 inflammasome, as potential targets against C. psittaci infection.

TSLP-activated dendritic cells induce human T follicular helper cell differentiation through OX40-ligand.

T follicular helper cells (Tfh) are important regulators of humoral responses. Human Tfh polarization pathways have been thus far associated with Th1 and Th17 polarization pathways. How human Tfh cells differentiate in Th2-skewed environments is unknown. We show that thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP)-activated dendritic cells (DCs) promote human Tfh differentiation from naive CD4 T cells. We identified a novel population, distinct from Th2 cells, expressing IL-21 and TNF, suggestive of inflammatory cells. TSLP-induced T cells expressed CXCR5, CXCL13, ICOS, PD1, BCL6, BTLA, and SAP, among other Tfh markers. Functionally, TSLP-DC-polarized T cells induced IgE secretion by memory B cells, and this depended on IL-4Rα. TSLP-activated DCs stimulated circulating memory Tfh cells to produce IL-21 and CXCL13. Mechanistically, TSLP-induced Tfh differentiation depended on OX40-ligand, but not on ICOS-ligand. Our results delineate a pathway of human Tfh differentiation in Th2 environments.

IL2/IL-4, OX40L and FDC-like cell line support the in vitro tumor cell growth of adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma.

Adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma (ATLL) is a peripheral T-cell neoplasm with an extremely poor prognosis. Maintaining ATLL cells in vitro is difficult and little is known about how they maintain themselves or grow in patients. Elucidating the interaction between ATLL cells and surrounding host factors might therefore provide important insights into pathophysiology. We cultured primary ATLL cells in various culture conditions using IL-2, IL-4 and feeder cells, and established two cell lines dependent on IL-2, IL-4 and a follicular dendritic cell-derived cell line, HK, in which OX40-ligand was induced. Our study indicates the importance of microenvironment in the homeostasis of ATLL.

T-cell costimulatory blockade in organ transplantation.

Before it became possible to derive T-cell lines and clones, initial experimentation on the activation requirements of T lymphocytes was performed on transformed cell lines, such as Jurkat. These studies, although technically correct, proved misleading as most transformed T cells can be activated by stimulation of the clonotypic T-cell receptor (TCR) alone. In contrast, once it became possible to study nontransformed T cells, it quickly became clear that TCR stimulation by itself is insufficient for optimal activation of naïve T cells, but in fact, induces a state of anergy. It then became clear that functional activation of T cells requires not only recognition of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) and peptide by the TCR, but also requires ligation of costimulatory receptors expressed on the cell surface.

Altered functions of plasmacytoid dendritic cells and reduced cytolytic activity of natural killer cells in patients with chronic HBV infection.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Hepatitis B virus (HBV) modulates the immune system to escape clearance. Plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) initiate antiviral immunity and might determine outcomes of HBV infections. Functional defects in pDCs and natural killer (NK) cells have been reported in patients with chronic HBV infection. However, the mechanisms of these immune dysfunctions and the interactions between pDCs and NK cells have not been determined. We investigated features of pDCs from patients with chronic HBV infection and their interactions with NK cells. METHODS: We used flow cytometry and cytokine assays to analyze pDCs from patients with chronic HBV infection (118 aviremic and 67 viremic) and compared them with pDCs from uninfected individuals (controls). We performed coculture assays to analyze the ability of pDCs to activate heterologous NK cells. RESULTS: Circulating and hepatic pDCs from patients with chronic HBV infection had higher levels of activation than pDCs from controls and defective responses to stimulation with Toll-like receptor 9 ligand (TLR9-L), regardless of the patient's viral load. TLR9-L-activated pDCs from viremic patients with HBV did not induce cytolytic activity of NK cells. This altered function of pDCs was associated with reduced expression of OX40L and could be reproduced by incubating control pDCs with plasma from viremic patients with HBV. A high level of interferon-induced protein 10 (IP-10 or CXCL10) and hepatitis B surface and e antigens might induce these defective pDC functions. CONCLUSIONS: HBV escapes antiviral immunity by altering pDC functions, to disrupt interactions between pDC and NK cells. This could reduce immune control of HBV and lead to chronic infection.

OX40 complexes with phosphoinositide 3-kinase and protein kinase B (PKB) to augment TCR-dependent PKB signaling.

T lymphocyte activation requires signal 1 from the TCR and signal 2 from costimulatory receptors. For long-lasting immunity, growth and survival signals imparted through the Akt/protein kinase B (PKB) pathway in activated or effector T cells are important, and these can be strongly influenced by signaling from OX40 (CD134), a member of the TNFR superfamily. In the absence of OX40, T cells do not expand efficiently to Ag, and memory formation is impaired. How most costimulatory receptors integrate their signals with those from Ag through the TCR is not clear, including whether OX40 directly recruits PKB or molecules that regulate PKB. We show that OX40 after ligation by OX40L assembled a signaling complex that contained the adapter TNFR-associated factor 2 as well as PKB and its upstream activator phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K). Recruitment of PKB and PI3K were dependent on TNFR-associated factor 2 and on translocation of OX40 into detergent-insoluble membrane lipid microdomains but independent of TCR engagement. However, OX40 only resulted in strong phosphorylation and functional activation of the PI3K-PKB pathway when Ag was recognized. Therefore, OX40 primarily functions to augment PKB signaling in T cells by enhancing the amount of PI3K and PKB available to the TCR. This highlights a quantitative role of this TNFR family second signal to supplement signal 1.

Thymic stromal lymphopoietin fosters human breast tumor growth by promoting type 2 inflammation.

The human breast tumor microenvironment can display features of T helper type 2 (Th2) inflammation, and Th2 inflammation can promote tumor development. However, the molecular and cellular mechanisms contributing to Th2 inflammation in breast tumors remain unclear. Here, we show that human breast cancer cells produce thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP). Breast tumor supernatants, in a TSLP-dependent manner, induce expression of OX40L on dendritic cells (DCs). OX40L(+) DCs are found in primary breast tumor infiltrates. OX40L(+) DCs drive development of inflammatory Th2 cells producing interleukin-13 and tumor necrosis factor in vitro. Antibodies neutralizing TSLP or OX40L inhibit breast tumor growth and interleukin-13 production in a xenograft model. Thus, breast cancer cell-derived TSLP contributes to the inflammatory Th2 microenvironment conducive to breast tumor development by inducing OX40L expression on DCs.

Is it wise to target the late costimulatory molecule OX40 as a therapeutic target?

The immune response triggered following pathogen recognition, though required to clear the infection, can be detrimental if it is produced in excess or fails to resolve promptly. Excessive inflammation contributes to infectious and noninfectious pathologies in the gut (such as inflammatory bowel disease), lung (such as bronchiolitis), and in a variety of autoimmune conditions. T cells contribute significantly to pathology during inflammation. Global anti-inflammatory strategies can alleviate the consequences of exuberant inflammation by suppressing T cell activity, but may leave the patient vulnerable to opportunistic infection. More specific therapies aim to suppress only those T cells involved in the disease process, and one such approach is to target late costimulatory molecules. These are not expressed on naïve or resting memory cells. Rather, they have a specific window of expression and their ligation results in the production of abundant inflammatory cytokines. By targeting these molecules, it is hoped that inflammation will reduce, but that therapies will be specific enough to avoid, global immune suppression. This review focuses on the late costimulatory molecule OX40, compare it with other T cell costimulators, and highlight why it is a more suitable target for immune intervention than other immune suppressive strategies.

T cell costimulatory and inhibitory receptors as therapeutic targets for inducing anti-tumor immunity.

Central to the normal function of the immune system is its ability to distinguish between self and non-self since failure to do so could provoke the onset of autoimmune disease. To avoid this possibility, the immune system employs several processes that include, negative selection, peripheral tolerance, and limiting DC antigen priming of naïve T cells to the lymph nodes. Naïve T cells must receive two independent signals from these antigen-presenting cells (APC) that other cells cannot provide if they are to become productively activated. The first is antigen-specific and occurs when T cell antigen receptors encounter the appropriate antigen-MHC complex on the APC--Signal 1. A second, antigen-independent signal is delivered through a T cell costimulatory molecule that engages its APC-expressed ligands--Signal 2. In the absence of a costimulatory signal T cells typically enter a state of anergy. Furthermore, the extent to which T cell activation occurs can be held in check through specific inhibitory receptors expressed on T cells. Understanding the basic mechanisms of how T cell activation is regulated has led to the development of therapeutic approaches for targeting T cell costimulatory and inhibitory pathways for turning on, or preventing the turning off immune responses in subjects with cancer. In this review we will discuss several T cell costimulatory and inhibitory pathways known to influence the development of anti-tumor immunity and how experimental manipulation of these signaling pathways has led to the generation of protective, or curative anti-tumor immunity in mice and humans.

Outside inside signalling in CD40-mediated B cell activation.

CD40 is a member of the growing tumor necrosis factor receptor (TNF-R) family of molecules, and has been shown to play important roles in T cell-mediated B lymphocyte activation. Ligation of B cell CD40 by CD154 expressed on activated T cells stimulates B cell proliferation, differentiation, isotype switching, upregulation of surface molecules contributing to antigen presentation, development of the germinal center, and the humoral memory response. The present review will summarize recent literature data on the various CD40 signalling pathways, which involve both the TNF-R associated factors (TRAFs) and additional signalling proteins, and lead to activation of kinases and transcription factors.