[The crispr / cas9 techniques applied to human genetic enhancement: a biotechnological, anthropological-philosophical and legal dialogue]. / Las técnicas crispr/cas9 aplicadas al mejoramiento genético humano: un diálogo biotecnológico, antropológico-filosófico y jurídico.

The CRISPR editing method is revolutionary. This technique opens the possibility of countless operations in the genome of living beings. However, the risks are high and, in some cases, unpredictable. Therefore, based on an anthropology that recognizes the human person with an inherent dignity that includes the body, this article intends to propose bases for a regulation capable of facing the challenge of CRISPR, especially, given the possibility of confusing its therapeutic resource with the eugenics, also before the imminent risk of unleashing unforeseen consequences such as mutations, malformations and side effects that could be devastating for human life.

[From transgenesis to gene edition. Bioethical and applied considerations]. / De la transgénesis a la edición génica. Aplicaciones y consideraciones bioéticas.

Transgenesis is a parcel of biotechnology that allows the introduction of genetic information not proper to the genome of living beings, apart from the mechanisms of natural genetic exchange. This made possible to address important applications in bacteria, animals and plants with significant benefits in health, food and environmental aspects. Since its origin, the production of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) caused some controversy due to the possible negative influence of these organisms or their derived products on health and the environment. Over time, genetic modification techniques have renewed, giving way to others of greater precision, simplicity and safety. Currently the CRISPR-Cas9 technique is widely used, which allows to edit, modify or eliminate specific DNA sequences, with multiple applications in the same fields of transgenesis, but adding greater simplicity, security and lower cost. This work presents the main techniques, applications and ethical implications of using these methods and their perspectives in an ever-evolving world. The bacteria for obtaining products of pharmacological interest, new varieties of cultivated plants of higher production, more resistance to growth limiting agents and better nutritional quality and domestic animals modified genetically, offer a set of advantages needed to address the global challenges that affect the lives of many people around the world.

Las técnicas crispr/cas9 aplicadas al mejoramiento genético humano: un diálogo biotecnológico, antropológico-filosófico y jurídico / The crispr/cas9 techniques applied to human genetic enhancement: a biotechnological, anthropological-philosophical and legal dialogue

El método de edición CRISPR es revolucionario. Está técnica abre la posibilidad de infinidades de operaciones en el genoma de seres vivos. Sin embargo, los riesgos son altos y, en algunos casos, imprevisibles. Por ello, a partir de una antropología que reconoce a la persona humana con una dignidad inherente que incluye el cuerpo, este artículo pretende proponer bases para una regulación capaz de afrontar el desafío de las CRISPR, especialmente, ante la posibilidad de confundir su recurso terapéutico con el eugenésico, asimismo ante el inminente riesgo de desencadenar consecuencias imprevistas como mutaciones, malformaciones y efectos secundarios que podrían ser devastadoras para la vida humana

The CRISPR editing method is revolutionary. This technique opens the possibility of countless operations in the genome of living beings. However, the risks are high and, in some cases, unpredictable. There-fore, based on an anthropology that recognizes the human person with an inherent dignity that includes the body, this article intends to propose bases for a regulation capable of facing the challenge of CRISPR, especially, given the possibility of confusing its therapeutic resource with the eugenics, also before the imminent risk of unleashing unforeseen consequences such as mutations, malformations and side effects that could be devastating for human life

Using the therapy and enhancement distinction in law and policy.

In a first major study, the UK's Royal Society found that 76% of people in the UK are in favour of therapeutic germline genomic editing to correct genetic diseases in human embryos, but found there was little appetite for germline genomic editing for non-therapeutic purposes. Assuming the UK and other governments acted on these findings, can lawmakers and policymakers coherently regulate the use of biomedical innovations by permitting their use for therapeutic purposes but prohibiting their use for enhancement purposes? This paper examines the very common claim in the enhancement literature that the therapy v enhancement distinction does little meaningful work in helping us think through the ethical issues, a claim that has significant implications for these lawmakers and policymakers who may wish to regulate genomic editing techniques to reflect the findings of this important study. The focus of this paper is on germline genomic editing as one of the main themes in this special issue.

Super-Man syndrome: vulnerability(ies) and enhancement(s). Legal and ethical implications of human genetic enhancement / Síndrome de Super-Man: vulnerabilidad(es) y mejora(s). Implicaciones legales y éticas de la mejora genética humana

In this article, I analyse the emerging phenomenon of human genetic enhancement, as an attempt to surpass the intrinsic vulnerability of human beings. With this purpose, I begin by scrutinizing the main international, supranational and national (Portuguese) norms which aim to protect the human genome. Afterward, I briefly reflect on the main ethical and juridical challenges posed by this polemic practice. What is to enhance? Is there, in the present days, an acceptable ethical and juridical basis for human genetic enhancement? And, if so, is it correct, with no need for further considerations, to carry out this kind of genetic interventions? These are some of the questions which we will try to answer subsequently

En este artículo, analizaremos el fenómeno emergente del mejoramiento genético humano, como posible medio de superar la vulnerabilidad intrínseca de los seres humanos. Con este propósito, comenzamos por examinar las principales normas internacionales, supranacionales y nacionales (portuguesas) concebidas para proteger el genoma humano. A continuación, nos proponemos reflexionar sobre los principales desafíos éticos y jurídicos planteados por esta práctica tan polémica. ¿Qué es mejorar? ¿Existe, actualmente, un fundamento ético y jurídico aceptable para el mejoramiento genético humano? Y, de ser así, ¿es correcto, sin más, llevar a cabo este tipo de intervenciones genéticas? Estas son algunas de las preguntas que trataremos de contestar a continuación

Terapia Gênica e Doping Genético: Diálogos Bioéticos e Biojurídicos / Terapia génica y doping genético: diálogos bioéticos y biojurídicos / Gene Therapy and Genetic Doping: Bioethical and Biolegal Dialogues

Resumo: A aplicação da engenharia genética no esporte desperta o debate com a criação dos atletas geneticamente modificados, a partir do doping genético. Nesse sentido, busca-se nestes estudos abordar o melhoramento genético no esporte, apresentando seus principais questionamentos bioéticos e biojurídicos. Para tanto, pesquisou-se autores em Biodireito, Bioética, Filosofia e em Genética, dado o caráter interdisciplinar que o tema exige. Assim, apresentou-se a distinção entre tratamento e melhoramento, com a terapia gênica e o doping genético, e, em seguida, adentrou-se nas questões bioéticas e jurídicas que o objeto da pesquisa envolve, de forma que, para ao final, o leitor possa refletir quais serão os impactos da genética aplicada ao rendimento esportivo e na sociedade. Os resultados desta pesquisa permitem concluir que a evolução é inerente ao homem, contudo, quando se trata da alteração genômica, torna-se imperiosa a reflexão dos impactos do aperfeiçoamento genético de forma a garantir iguais liberdades fundamentais no contexto do Estado Democrático de Direito. Com essa abordagem demonstra-se que a bioética é o eixo do diálogo e debate multidisciplinar que o tema envolve para a construção dos novos rumos da engenharia genética humana.

Resumen: La aplicación de la ingeniería genética en el deporte despierta el debate con la creación de los atletas genéticamente modificados, a partir del dopaje genético. En este sentido, se busca en estos estudios abordar el mejoramiento genético en el deporte, presentando sus principales cuestionamientos bioéticos y biojurídicos. Para tanto, se investigó autores en Bioderecho, Bioética, Filosofía y Genética, dado el carácter interdisciplinar que el tema exige. Así, se presentó la distinción entre tratamiento y mejoramiento, con la terapia génica y el dopaje genético, y, enseguida, se centró en las cuestiones bioéticas y jurídicas que el objeto de la investigación involucra, de forma que, para al final, el lector pueda reflexionar sobre cuáles serán los impactos de la genética aplicada al rendimiento deportivo y en la sociedad. Los resultados de esta investigación permiten concluir que la evolución es inherente al hombre, pero, cuando se trata de la alteración genómica, se hace imperiosa la reflexión de los impactos del perfeccionamiento genético de forma a garantizar iguales libertades fundamentales en el contexto del Estado Democrático de Derecho. Con este abordaje, se demuestra que la bioética es el eje del diálogo y debate multidisciplinar que el tema involucra para la construcción de los nuevos caminos de la ingeniería genética humana.

Abstract: The application of genetic engineering in sports awakens the debate with the creation of genetically modified athletes, from genetic doping. In this sense, these studies seek to address the genetic improvement in sport, presenting its main bioethical and bio-legal questions. Therefore, authors in Biolaw, Bioethics, Philosophy and Genetics were investigated, given the interdisciplinary nature that the subject demands. Thus, the distinction between treatment and improvement was presented, with gene therapy and genetic doping, and, immediately, focused on the bioethical and legal issues that the object of the research involves, so that, in the end, the reader can reflect on the impacts of genetics applied to sports performance and society. The results of this research allow us to conclude that evolution is inherent to man, but when it comes to genomic alteration, it is imperative to reflect on the impacts of genetic improvement in order to guarantee equal fundamental freedoms in the context of the Democratic Rule of Law. With this approach, it is demonstrated that bioethics is the axis of the multidisciplinary dialogue and debate that the topic involves for the construction of the new paths of human genetic engineering.

Germline Interventions in Humans - Challenges for Law and Ethics / Intervenciones en línea germinal en seres humanos: desafíos para el Derecho y la Ética

The discovery of new methods of genetic engineering has revolutionized genetic research and opens up new ways of gene therapies. The molecular tool known as CRISPR/Cas9 in particular allows researchers to alter the human genome with unprecedented precision. This new method is referred to as "genome editing," since the procedure is reminiscent of the correction of a text: "false" letters of the DNA can simply be replaced. Due to the precision and the simple application of this method, the focus is now on a field of application that was previously considered an absolute taboo: germline interventions. Any interference with the human germline causes the corresponding genetic changes to be passed on from generation to generation. The issue is highly controversial, and the arguments for and against interventions are diverse. Their proponents argue that future descendants will thus be freed from serious genetic diseases. Opponents, on the other hand, believe that this path must always remain off limits in order to prevent the conception of "designer children." It is clear that such interventions should not yet take place at the moment: more research is needed in order to allow for a more precise risk-benefit-assessment. In fact, the research community seemed to agree that the techniques are not yet sufficiently developed. However, the rumoured birth of two genetically modified children in China at the end of November 2018 shows that such a consensus either does not exist or, at least, that we cannot trust rely on all researchers acting in accordance with the scientific consensus. This news therefore highlights yet again how urgently we must discuss the issue: it is high time, also given the possibility of rapid improvements in the techniques' safety, to deliberate on the justifiability of germline interventions and to set clear limits. This article is intended to contribute to this debate and to sketch the main arguments

The discovery of new methods of genetic engineering has revolutionized genetic research and opens up new ways of gene therapies. The molecular tool known as CRISPR/Cas9 in particular allows researchers to alter the human genome with unprecedented precision. This new method is referred to as "genome editing," since the procedure is reminiscent of the correction of a text: "false" letters of the DNA can simply be replaced. Due to the precision and the simple application of this method, the focus is now on a field of application that was previously considered an absolute taboo: germline interventions. Any interference with the human germline causes the corresponding genetic changes to be passed on from generation to generation. The issue is highly controversial, and the arguments for and against interventions are diverse. Their proponents argue that future descendants will thus be freed from serious genetic diseases. Opponents, on the other hand, believe that this path must always remain off limits in order to prevent the conception of "designer children." It is clear that such interventions should not yet take place at the moment: more research is needed in order to allow for a more precise risk-benefit-assessment. In fact, the research community seemed to agree that the techniques are not yet sufficiently developed. However, the rumoured birth of two genetically modified children in China at the end of November 2018 shows that such a consensus either does not exist or, at least, that we cannot trust rely on all researchers acting in accordance with the scientific consensus. This news therefore highlights yet again how urgently we must discuss the issue: it is high time, also given the possibility of rapid improvements in the techniques' safety, to deliberate on the justifiability of germline interventions and to set clear limits. This article is intended to contribute to this debate and to sketch the main arguments

La eliminación de taras o enfermedades graves como elemento del tipo del delito de manipulación genética / The elimination of serious defects or diseases as a substantial element of the genetic manipulation offence

La introducción de los delitos relativos a la manipulación genética en el Código penal de 1995 fue celebrada como uno de los muchos aciertos que la política criminal contemporánea ha tenido y como una necesaria y urgente adaptación del Derecho penal a los avances científicos en la materia. Desde su creación el tipo penal recogido en el artículo 159 del Código penal ha recibido una necesaria labor interpretativa que la doctrina penal especializada ha llevado a cabo sobre su ubicación sistemática, su estructura general, los intereses protegidos en él, la conducta típica y la técnica de tipificación utilizada por el legislador al diseñar su morfología y elementos. En este trabajo se lleva a cabo el análisis de un segmento del tipo del artículo 159.1 del Código penal, compuesto todo él por elementos de difícil interpretación, centrándome en los conceptos de taras y de enfermedades graves, que son los utilizados por el legislador para complementar con un elemento intencional la estructura del tipo objetivo del delito. Debemos analizar secuencialmente su naturaleza y textura, su función en el contexto del tipo, su relación con el resto de elementos de la conducta típica y el proceso de determinación de su contenido. Ello nos aboca frontalmente con dilucidar si se trata de causas de justificación o elementos del tipo, y de ahí se derivará qué función tienen respecto al dolo del autor y la tipología del error sobre ellos

The introduction of crimes related to genetic manipulation in the 1995 Penal Code was celebrated as one of the many successes that contemporary criminal policy has had and as a necessary and urgent adaptation of criminal law to scientific advances in the matter. Since its creation, the criminal prohibition in the article 159 of the Criminal Code has received a necessary interpretative work that the specialized criminal science has carried out on its location, its general structure, the protected interests, the punished behavior and the technics on engineering used by the legislator when designing its morphology and elements. In this work is carried out the analysis of a part of the article 159.1 of the Penal Code, composed all of it by elements of difficult interpretation, focusing on the concepts of "defects" and "serious diseases", which are those used by the legislator to complement with an intentional element the structure of the crime. On these elements we must analyze sequentially its nature and texture, its function in the context of the criminal offence of which they are a part, its relationship with the rest of the elements and the process of filling its meaning. This leads us to determine whether these are causes of justification or elements of the criminal offence, and from there we will derive what role they have regarding the author's intent and the typology of the error cases on these elements

Everything in moderation, even hype: learning from vaccine controversies to strike a balance with CRISPR.

The ease and applicability of CRISPR/Cas9--a new and precise gene editing and reproductive technology--have garnered hype and heightened concern about its potential 'unprecedented and horrific consequences' and have led many scientific leaders to call for a moratorium on its research and use. CRISPR appears distinctly more controversial than previous technological innovations (genetic or otherwise), with a greater reach and speed of human treatment and enhancement; however, we have seen similarly inflated hopes and fears in response to other medical innovations for well over a century. One intervention that has both historically and recently incited alarm--vaccines--serves as a pertinent example of what could go wrong if a technology's reach is shortened due to inflated fears. By comparing the vaccine controversy and the CRISPR debate, we can help separate the hype from the realistic potential of these technologies. How our society grapples with such innovations will determine the extent to which their impact on our individual and collective health will be beneficial. We must recognise the need for a tempered approach to CRISPR conversation leading to regulation and ethical application. Although CRISPR's reach will continue expanding with ongoing research, thus requiring continuous evaluation, the lessons we have learned from the vaccine controversy demonstrate that our approach must not be to shut down regulation and application now, but to thoughtfully conjoin productive debate and action so that therapeutic gene editing can alleviate suffering as soon as possible without precipitating social outcomes we would belatedly deplore.

Public goods and procreation.

Procreation is the ultimate public goods problem. Each new child affects the welfare of many other people, and some (but not all) children produce uncompensated value that future people will enjoy. This essay addresses challenges that arise if we think of procreation and parenting as public goods. These include whether individual choices are likely to lead to a socially desirable outcome, and whether changes in laws, social norms, or access to genetic engineering and embryo selection might improve the aggregate outcome of our reproductive choices.

Estado de la cuestión y problemas éticos en medicina regenerativa / State of affairs and ethical issues in regenerative medicine

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Mejoras genéticas: igualdad y factor temporal / Genetic improvement: equality and temporal factor

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Implicaciones ético-jurídicas de las intervenciones de mejora en el ámbito deportivo. Especial consideración del llamado 'dopaje genético' / Ethical and legal implications of interventions for improvement in sports. Special consideration of the so-called 'gene doping'

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Regulating human enhancement technologies: the role of the law and human dignity.

This article offers a critique on the potential role of the law in human enhancement technologies and its interaction with our perceived understandings of human dignity. The author outlines the initial hurdles of defining human enhancement and human dignity while maintaining that there is the necessity for a distinction to be established between enhancement and therapy. The author then discusses the role of regulation and outlines possible different approaches: self-regulation, "legislative pre-emption" or a balance. The author concludes by examining these issues in relation to parents and their rights to "design" their children through preimplantation genetic diagnosis.

Retracing liberalism and remaking nature: designer children, research embryos, and featherless chickens.

Liberal theory seeks to achieve toleration, civil peace, and mutual respect in pluralistic societies by making public policy without reference to arguments arising from within formative ideals about what gives value to human life. Does it make sense to set aside such conceptions of the good when it comes to controversies about stem cell research and the genetic engineering of people or animals? Whether it is reasonable to bracket our world-views in such cases depends on how we answer the moral questions that the use of these biotechnologies presuppose. I argue that the moral language of liberal justice - of rights and duties, interests and opportunities, freedom and consent, equality and fairness - cannot speak to these underlying concerns about what the human embryo is, why the natural lottery matters to us, and whether 'animal nature' is worth preserving. I conclude that liberal theory is incapable of furnishing a coherent or desirable account to govern the way we use our emerging powers of biotechnology.

Should we enhance animals?

Much bioethical discussion has been devoted to the subject of human enhancement through various technological means such as genetic modification. Although many of the same technologies could be, indeed in many cases already have been, applied to non-human animals, there has been very little consideration of the concept of "animal enhancement", at least not in those specific terms. This paper addresses the notion of animal enhancement and the ethical issues surrounding it. A definition of animal enhancement is proposed that provides a framework within which to consider these issues; and it is argued that if human enhancement can be considered to be a moral obligation, so too can animal enhancement.

Physical enhancement of human performance: is law keeping pace with science?

In the area of genometry-the nascent field of science and technology that proposes to apply enhanced understanding of the human genetic code to reshaping our individual and collective destinies-no topic has generated more interest among the general public, as well as in the athletic community, than the potential for physical enhancement of the human body and its performance. Genometric experiments have produced physically enhanced mice, and the production of similarly enhanced humans may not be far off. Although it is not the objective of most genometric research, the day will come when gene-based "treatments" will enable individuals to build muscle or increase endurance faster than is possible through conventional methods. This article describes developments in the area of physical enhancement that may find application in the "gene doping" of athletes. For example, human performance-related genes may be delivered to athletes using tools developed for research in gene therapy; the protein products of these genes may be administered in recombinant form; and recently discovered small-molecule activators of the major genetic regulatory pathways of physical prowess may be taken orally, providing "exercise in a pill". This article also describes US and international attempts to regulate and punish the use of prohibited techniques for performance enhancement among athletes. As science advances, defining and detecting "gene doping" becomes increasingly complex. Thus, the study of physical enhancement provides an ideal starting point for the interdisciplinary Redefined Destinies Colloquium's examination of the intersection between law and science.