Investigation of a Novel Multicomponent Mycotoxin Detoxifying Agent in Amelioration of Mycotoxicosis Induced by Aflatoxin-B1 and Ochratoxin A in Broiler Chicks.

The present study was designed to determine the efficacy of a novel multicomponent mycotoxin detoxifying agent (MMDA) containing modified zeolite (Clinoptilolite), Bacillus subtilis, B. licheniformis, Saccharomyces cerevisiae cell walls and silymarin against the deleterious effects of Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and Ochratoxin A (OTA) in broiler chicks. A total of 160 one-day-old Ross 308® broiler chicks were randomly allocated in four treatment groups, with four replicates, according to the following experimental design for 42 days. Group A received a basal diet; Group B received a basal diet contaminated with AFB1 and OTA at 0.1 mg/kg and 1 mg/kg, respectively; Group C received a basal diet contaminated with AFB1 and OTA and MMDA at 1 g/kg feed, and Group D received a basal diet contaminated with AFB1 and OTA and MMDA at 3 g/kg feed. Results showed that ingested mycotoxins led to significant (p ≤ 0.05) reduction in body weight and feed conversion from 25 days of age, induced histopathological changes, increased the pH of the intestinal content, and altered the biochemical profile of birds with significantly (p ≤ 0.05) increased aspartate aminotransferase (AST) values (p ≤ 0.05). On the other hand, the supplementation of MMDA significantly (p ≤ 0.05) improved the feed conversion ratio (FCR) during the second part of the study, diminished biochemical alterations, reduced pH in jejunal and ileal content, and E. coli counts in the caeca of birds (p ≤ 0.05). It may be concluded that the dietary supplementation of the MMDA partially ameliorated the adverse effects of AFB1 and OTA in broilers and could be an efficient tool in a mycotoxin control program.

Ruminant Mycotoxicosis: An Update.

This review focuses on factors associated with mold production in feedstuffs and major mycotoxins affecting ruminants in North America. Ruminants are often considered less sensitive to mycotoxins owing to rumen microflora metabolism to less toxic compounds. However, ruminants occupy wide agricultural niches that expose animals to diverse toxins under widely different environmental and nutritional conditions. Often the moldy and potentially highly contaminated feeds end up at feedlots. Less than optimal feedstuffs creating suboptimal rumen microbial flora could result in decreased ruminal capacity to detoxify certain mycotoxins and adverse effects. Numerous mycotoxins and clinical effects in ruminants are discussed.

Effect of Folic Acid Supplementation and Dietary Protein Level on Growth Performance, Serum Chemistry and Immune Response in Weanling Piglets Fed Differing Concentrations of Aflatoxin.

Effects of folic acid and protein levels on growth and serum chemistry in pigs fed aflatoxin were determined in two experiments. Increasing aflatoxin (250 to 800 ppb) decreased (P < 0.05) weight gain and feed intake for both of the 35-day trials. In Experiment 1, increasing aflatoxin (0, 250, 500 ppb), increased linearly (P < 0.05) aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALKP) and ɣ-glutamyl transferase (GGT). Folic acid (0, 2.0, 5.0, 12.5 ppm) increased linearly (P < 0.05) serum K, Ca, P, Mg, and AST with the largest effect observed at 12.5 ppm. Folic acid decreased (P < 0.05) blood urea nitrogen (BUN): creatinine and Na:K. In Experiment 2, aflatoxin (800 ppb) increased (P < 0.05) glucose and GGT, and decreased (P < 0.05) Na:K and albumin:globulin. Increasing protein from 15 to 18% elevated BUN: creatinine (P < 0.05), albumin: globulin (P < 0.05), albumin (P < 0.05) and ALKP (P < 0.05). Folic acid (2 ppm) elevated (P < 0.05) BUN, and interacted with both aflatoxin (P < 0.10) and protein (P < 0.05) on BUN. Adding folic acid to aflatoxin contaminated diets improved some measures of clinical chemistry in Experiment 1 but not traditional growth performance measures. The higher protein level reduced the effects of aflatoxicosis on growth.

Lactobacillus bulgaricus or Lactobacillus rhamnosus Suppresses NF-κB Signaling Pathway and Protects against AFB1-Induced Hepatitis: A Novel Potential Preventive Strategy for Aflatoxicosis?

Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), a mycotoxin found in food and feed, is immunotoxic to animals and poses significant threat to the food industry and animal production. The primary target of AFB1 is the liver. To overcome aflatoxin toxicity, probiotic-mediated detoxification has been proposed. In the present study, to investigate the protective effects and molecular mechanisms of Lactobacillus bulgaricus or Lactobacillus rhamnosus against liver inflammatory responses to AFB1, mice were administered with AFB1 (300 µg/kg) and/or Lactobacillus intragastrically for 8 weeks. AML12 cells were cultured and treated with AFB1, BAY 11-7082 (an NF-κB inhibitor), and different concentrations of L. bulgaricus or L. rhamnosus. The body weight, liver index, histopathological changes, biochemical indices, cytokines, cytotoxicity, and activation of the NF-κB signaling pathway were measured. AFB1 exposure caused changes in liver histopathology and biochemical functions, altered inflammatory response, and activated the NF-κB pathway. Supplementation of L. bulgaricus or L. rhamnosus significantly prevented AFB1-induced liver injury and alleviated histopathological changes and inflammatory response by decreasing NF-κB p65 expression. The results of in vitro experiments revealed that L.rhamnosus evidently protected against AFB1-induced inflammatory response and decreased NF-κB p65 expression when compared with L. bulgaricus. These findings indicated that AFB1 exposure can cause inflammatory response by inducing hepatic injury, and supplementation of L. bulgaricus or L. rhamnosus can produce significant protective effect against AFB1-induced liver damage and inflammatory response by regulating the activation of the NF-κB signaling pathway.

Ameliorative Effects of Neutral Electrolyzed Water on Growth Performance, Biochemical Constituents, and Histopathological Changes in Turkey Poults during Aflatoxicosis.

Different in vitro and in silico approaches from our research group have demonstrated that neutral electrolyzed water (NEW) can be used to detoxify aflatoxins. The objective of this investigation was to evaluate the ability of NEW to detoxify B-aflatoxins (AFB1 and AFB2) in contaminated maize and to confirm detoxification in an in vivo experimental model. Batches of aflatoxin-contaminated maize were detoxified with NEW and mixed in commercial feed. A total of 240 6-day-old female large white Nicholas-700 turkey poults were randomly divided into four treatments of six replicates each (10 turkeys per replicate), which were fed ad libitum for two weeks with the following dietary treatments: (1) control feed containing aflatoxin-free maize (CONTROL); (2) feed containing the aflatoxin-contaminated maize (AF); (3) feed containing the aflatoxin-contaminated maize detoxified with NEW (AF + NEW); and (4) control feed containing aflatoxin-free maize treated with NEW (NEW). Compared to the control groups, turkey poults of the AF group significantly reduced body weight gain and increased feed conversion ratio and mortality rate; whereas turkey poults of the AF + NEW group did not present significant differences on productive parameters. In addition, alterations in serum biochemical constituents, enzyme activities, relative organ weight, gross morphological changes and histopathological studies were significantly mitigated by the aflatoxin-detoxification procedure. From these results, it is concluded that the treatment of aflatoxin-contaminated maize with NEW provided reasonable protection against the effects caused by aflatoxins in young turkey poults.

Effect of dietary macronutrients on aflatoxicosis: a mini-review.

Aflatoxin is a toxin produced by Aspergillus species of fungi. The main route of aflatoxin exposure is through the diet. Indeed, long-term aflatoxin exposure is linked to the development of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Aflatoxin causes aflatoxicosis, which can be affected by several factors and is prevalent in many developing Asian and African countries. This mini-review discusses the effects of carbohydrate, fat and protein on aflatoxicosis based on findings from animal and human studies. It was found that high carbohydrate intake enhanced aflatoxicosis occurrence, while low ingestion of carbohydrate with caloric restriction slowed the symptoms associated with aflatoxicosis. Additionally, diets with low protein content worsened the symptoms related to HCC due to aflatoxin exposure. Nevertheless, a study reported that a high-protein diet favored detoxification of aflatoxin in vivo. There were also conflicting results on the influence of dietary fat, as high ingestion of fat enhanced aflatoxicosis development as compared with a low-fat diet. Moreover, the type of fat also plays a significant role in influencing aflatoxin toxicity. In regard to food safety, understanding the influence of macronutrients toward the progression of aflatoxicosis can improve preventive measures against human and animal exposure to aflatoxin. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.

Determination of liver and muscle aflatoxin B1 residues and select serum chemistry variables during chronic aflatoxicosis in broiler chickens.

BACKGROUND: Aflatoxins are secondary metabolites of the fungus Aspergillus sp. The presence of aflatoxin in poultry feeds results in direct toxicity and economic losses, and human health hazards after consumption of contaminated liver and meat. OBJECTIVES: The study was conducted to assess tissue residues of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), and alterations in select clinical chemistry variables in serum during chronic aflatoxicosis in broiler chicks fed different dietary levels of AFB1. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Six groups of broiler chickens were fed diets containing between 0 and 800 ppb of AFB1 for 28 days. Groups of birds were terminated on days 0, 5, 13, 15, 20, and 28, and AFB1 levels were determined by HPLC in liver and muscle. Serum activities of ALT and ALP, and total protein and albumin concentrations were determined. RESULTS: No AFB1 residues were detected in liver after 50 ppb AFB1, and muscle after 50 and 100 ppb AFB1 feeding. Residues above the permissible threshold (> 2.0 ng/g) were only detected in liver tissues of groups fed 400 ppb and 800 ppb AFB1 in feed. The ALT and ALP activities in treated groups were significantly higher, and total protein and albumin concentrations were significantly lower in all treated groups compared to controls. CONCLUSIONS: Continuous feeding of AFB1 to broiler chicken at levels of 50 and 100 ppb for 28 days did not reveal measurable AFB1 residues in muscle tissues. Serum values of ALT, ALP, total protein, and albumin may serve as markers for chronic aflatoxicosis in affected poultry.

Effects of dietary protein concentration on performance and nutrient digestibility in Pekin ducks during aflatoxicosis.

A 14-d study was conducted to determine the impact of dietary crude protein concentration on performance, serum biochemistry, and nutrient digestive functions in Pekin ducklings during aflatoxicosis. A total of 144 male Pekin ducklings were randomly allotted to 4 dietary treatments arranged in a 2×2 factorial with 2 crude protein (CP) (20 and 24% on an analyzed basis) with or without 0.2 mg/kg aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) (0.21 mg/kg analyzed). The AFB1 reduced BW gain, feed intake, and breast muscle weight by 33 to 43% (P<0.0001). Serum concentration of protein, glucose, and Ca were also decreased by AFB1 (P≤0.0015), while pancreatic activities of amylase and lipase were increased by AFB1 (P<0.005). Apparent N digestibility was not affected by dietary treatment, whereas apparent ileal digestible energy was reduced 7.6% by AFB1 (P=0.0003). Higher dietary CP improved BW gain, gain:feed ratio, and breast muscle weight (P≤0.021), and tended to improve feed intake (P=0.094), but did not improve serum measures, digestive enzyme activity, or nutrient digestibility. No statistical interaction of AFB1 by CP was observed for any measures. Results from the current study suggest that AFB1 at low concentration can significantly impair performance of Pekin ducklings primarily through inhibited feed intake, as well as influence nutrient digestion processes (jejunum morphology, digestive enzyme activity, and apparent energy digestibility). Higher dietary CP can improve growth performance of ducklings regardless of AF exposure, but did not interact with dietary AFB1 on performance, serum biochemistry, or nutrient digestion in Pekin ducklings from hatch to 14 d.

Protective effect of curcumin against experimentally induced aflatoxicosis on the renal cortex of adult male albino rats: a histological and immunohisochemical study.

BACKGROUND: Aflatoxin contamination of foods is a worldwide problem. Chronic aflatoxin exposure is associated with kidney damage. Curcumin is a herbal agent, used in medicine with a wide range of beneficial therapeutic effects. OBJECTIVE: to evaluate the effect of curcumin against experimentally induced aflatoxicosis on the renal cortex of adult male albino rats. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Forty adult male rats were included and they were divided equally into 4 groups (10 rats each): Group I (control group), group II (Curcumin group): The rats received curcumin (200 mg/kg b.w.) orally by gastric tube for 5 days/week, group III (Aflatoxin B1 group): The rats received aflatoxin B1 (250 µg/kg b.w./day) orally by gastric tube 5 days/week for 4 weeks, group IV (Aflatoxin B1 and Curcumin group): The rats received aflatoxin and curcumin orally by gastric tube 5 days/week for 4 weeks. Kidney specimens were prepared and sections were stained with hematoxylin and eosin, Masson's trichrome, Periodic acid Schiff, immunohistochemical detection of desmin and Bcl2. RESULTS: The tubules of group III showed degenerative and necrotic changes with disruption of basal lamina. There was a significant decrease Bcl2 expression in the tubules, but the glomeruli showed an enlargement with dilation of their capillaries lumina in some areas, while the other areas showed glomerular atrophy with obliteration of their capillaries lumina. There was a significant increase in desmin expression in the glomerular cells. The interstitium showed hemorrhage and cellular infiltration. Group IV showed improvement of the histological and immunohistochemical changes described before. CONCLUSION: Aflatoxin B1 has deleterious effects of on the histological structure of the rat's renal cortex and curcumin minimized these effects as it has antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antiapoptotic activities. We advise eating nutritious diets that contain sufficient amounts of curcumin and regulation must implement to avoid the presence of aflatoxins in high concentrations in human food.

Cecal enzyme activity in gilts following experimentally induced Fusarium mycotoxicosis.

The objective of the presented study was to examine the influence of Fusarium mycotoxins (zearalenone--ZEN and deoxynivalenol--DON), administered separately and in combination, on the activity of cecal enzymes (ß-glucosidase and ß-glucuronidase) in gilts which were fed fodder con- taminated with these mycotoxins. The activity of ß-glucosidase and ß-glucuronidase varied in the range of 0.170-1.236 µmol · h(-1) · mg(-1) and 8.701-96.704 µmol · h(-1) · mg(-1), respectively. In the first two weeks, the toxins had no significant effect on the activity of ß-glucosidase and ß-glucuronidase in the ascending and descending colon. After week 3 and later on, ZEN and DON administered as a mix- ture led to the highest increase in the activity of both enzymes. Administered separately, DON affected the activity of enzymes more than ZEN. From the third week of the experiment, an increase in the activity of CW ß-glucosidase and ß-glucuronidase was observed.

RNA-Seq analysis implicates detoxification pathways in ovine mycotoxin resistance.

Mycotoxin induced hepatoxocity has been linked to oxidative stress, resulting from either an increase in levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) above normal levels and/or the suppression of antioxidant protective pathways. However, few detailed molecular studies of mycotoxicoses in animals have been carried out. This study use current RNA-seq based approaches to investigate the effects of mycotoxin exposure in a ruminant model. Having first assembled a de novo reference transcriptome, we use RNA-Seq technology to define in vivo hepatic gene expression changes resulting from mycotoxin exposure in relationship to pathological effect. As expected, characteristic oxidative stress related gene expression is markedly different in animals exhibiting poorer outcomes. However, expression of multiple genes critical for detoxification, particularly members of the cytochrome P450 gene family, was significantly higher in animals exhibiting mycotoxin tolerance ('resistance'). Further, we present novel evidence for the amplification of Wnt signalling pathway activity in 'resistant' animals, resulting from the marked suppression of multiple key Wnt inhibitor genes. Notably, 'resistance' may be determined primarily by the ability of an individual to detoxify secondary metabolites generated by the metabolism of mycotoxins and the potentiation of Wnt signalling may be pivotal to achieving a favourable outcome upon challenge.

Deficient glutathione in the pathophysiology of mycotoxin-related illness.

Evidence for the role of oxidative stress in the pathophysiology of mycotoxin-related illness is increasing. The glutathione antioxidant and detoxification systems play a major role in the antioxidant function of cells. Exposure to mycotoxins in humans requires the production of glutathione on an "as needed" basis. Research suggests that mycotoxins can decrease the formation of glutathione due to decreased gene expression of the enzymes needed to form glutathione. Mycotoxin-related compromise of glutathione production can result in an excess of oxidative stress that leads to tissue damage and systemic illness. The review discusses the mechanisms by which mycotoxin-related deficiency of glutathione may lead to both acute and chronic illnesses.

The expression of type-1 and type-2 nitric oxide synthase in selected tissues of the gastrointestinal tract during mixed mycotoxicosis.

The aim of the study was to verify the hypothesis that intoxication with low doses of mycotoxins leads to changes in the mRNA expression levels of nitric oxide synthase-1 and nitric oxide synthase-2 genes in tissues of the gastrointestinal tract and the liver. The experiment involved four groups of immature gilts (with body weight of up to 25 kg) which were orally administered zearalenone in a daily dose of 40 µg/kg BW (group Z, n = 18), deoxynivalenol at 12 µg/kg BW (group D, n = 18), zearalenone and deoxynivalenol (group M, n = 18) or placebo (group C, n = 21) over a period of 42 days. The lowest mRNA expression levels of nitric oxide synthase-1 and nitric oxide synthase-2 genes were noted in the sixth week of the study, in particular in group M. Our results suggest that the presence of low mycotoxin doses in feed slows down the mRNA expression of both nitric oxide synthase isomers, which probably lowers the concentrations of nitric oxide, a common precursor of inflammation.

The effect of low-dose experimental zearalenone intoxication on the immunoexpression of estrogen receptors in the ovaries of pre-pubertal bitches.

Zearalenone is an estrogenic mycotoxin that often contaminates plant material used in the production of feeds for companion animals. Small daily doses of ingested zearalenone--a competitive substrate modulating the activity of enzymes participating in estrogen biosynthesis at the pre-receptor level--can induce subclinical symptoms of hyperestrogenism in bitches. The objective of this study was to determine the effects of low zearalenone doses on the presence of estrogen receptors in the ovaries of pre-pubertal Beagle bitches. The bitches were divided into three groups of 10 animals each: experimental group I--50 microg zearalenone/kg body weight administered once daily per os; experimental group II--75 microg zearalenone/kg body weight administered once daily per os; control group--placebo containing no ZEN administered per os. The animals were ovariorectomized at the end of the experiment, at 112 days of age. Estrogen receptors were detected in ovarian specimens by immunohistochemical methods. The results revealed an absence of estrogen receptors alpha in all groups. In both experimental groups a decrease in the positive response of estrogen receptors beta in specified structures of ovaries was observed. Very low alpha-zearalenol levels probably attested to the slowing down (hypostimulation) of the biotransformation process. Overall, zearalenone intoxication led to hyperestrogenism during a specific developmental stage of pre-pubertal bitches. As regards hormesis, the threshold dose of zearalenone (adaptive capability) was exceeded in the ovaries of experimental group II animals. The results obtained in both experimental groups suggest that long-term exposure to low-dose zearalenone intoxication decreased the degree of estrogen receptors beta staining in particular structures of ovaries in the experimental bitches, which initiated epigenetic modification mechanisms that inhibited ovarian development.

Bovine neuronal vesicular glutamate transporter activity is inhibited by ergovaline and other ergopeptines.

l-Glutamate (Glu) is a major excitatory neurotransmitter responsible for neurotransmission in the vertebrate central nervous system. Vesicular Glu transporters VGLUT1 and VGLUT2 concentrate (50mM) Glu [Michaelis constant (measuring affinity), or K(m),=1 to 4mM] into synaptic vesicles (SV) for subsequent release into the synaptic cleft of glutamatergic neurons. Vesicular Glu transporter activity is dependent on vacuolar H(+)-ATPase function. Previous research has shown that ergopeptines contained in endophyte-infected tall fescue interact with dopaminergic and serotoninergic receptors, thereby affecting physiology regulated by these neuron types. To test the hypothesis that ergopeptine alkaloids inhibit VGLUT activity of bovine cerebral SV, SV were isolated from cerebral tissue of Angus-cross steers that were naive to ergot alkaloids. Immunoblot analysis validated the enrichment of VGLUT1, VGLUT2, synaptophysin 1, and vacuolar H(+)-ATPase in purified SV. Glutamate uptake assays demonstrated the dependence of SV VGLUT-like activity on the presence of ATP, H(+)-gradients, and H(+)-ATPase function. The effect of ergopeptines on VGLUT activity was evaluated by ANOVA. Inhibitory competition (IC(50)) experiments revealed that VGLUT-mediated Glu uptake (n=9) was inhibited by ergopeptine alkaloids: bromocriptine (2.83±0.59µM)

Hsp70 expression as biomarkers of oxidative stress: mycotoxins' exploration.

The environment represents a key contributor to human health and disease. Exposure to many substances such as pollutants, toxins and chemicals, has detrimental effects on health and are considered to contribute substantially to most diseases of major public health significance. Environmental diseases as mycotoxicosis are those in general aroused or exacerbated by exposure to environmental stressors as mycotoxins. These hazardous compounds are secondary metabolites produced by fungi and occurred simultaneously in food, feed and raw materials. The present investigation was conducted to assess if (i) Hsp70 induction, a parameter of protective and adaptive response, is a systematic biomarker to mycotoxin intoxications and (ii) all mycotoxins undergo oxidative stress in there toxic signalling pathways, as the omnipresent process playing a role in the initiation or progression of numerous disorders. Overall, observations to date evoke that Hsp70 can act as biomarkers of oxidative injury instead they are not systematic to mycotoxin exposure.

Aquilegia vulgaris L. extract counteracts oxidative stress and cytotoxicity of fumonisin in rats.

Exposure to fumonisins (FB) is known to have toxic and carcinogenic effects in different animal species, and to express toxicity in cells via the induction of oxidative stress. The aim of the current study was to evaluate the protective effects of the ethanol extract of Aquilegia vulgaris L. against the oxidative stress and the genotoxicity using micronucleus assay and random amplified polymorphism DNA (RAPD-PCR) in FB-treated rats. Sixty mature female Sprague-Dawley were divided into six treatment groups and treated for 4 weeks as follow: the control group, the group fed FB-contaminated diet (200 mg/kg diet), the groups treated orally with the extract (5 and 10 mg/kg bw) and the groups fed FB-contaminated diet and treated with the extract at the two doses. The results showed that treatment with FB alone disturbed lipid profile in serum, increases Sa/So ratio, induces micronucleated polychromatic erythrocytes (Mn-PCEs) in bone marrow, increases DNA and RNA in liver accompanied with significant changes in histological picture The extract alone at the two tested doses did not induce any significant changes in the biochemical or histological picture. The combined treatment showed significant improvements in all biochemical, cytogenetic parameters tested and histological pictures in the liver tissues. Moreover, this improvement was more pronounced in the group received the high dose of the extract. It could be concluded that the ethanol extract of A. vulgaris induced its protective effect via the increase in the antioxidant capacity, inhibition of lipid peroxidation and scavenging of free radicals.

Aflatoxicosis in chickens (Gallus gallus): an example of hormesis?

Poultry has commonly been considered highly susceptible to aflatoxins. However, among domestic fowl there is wide variability in specific species sensitivity to these mycotoxins. Comparative toxicological studies in avian species have shown that ducklings and turkey poults are the most sensitive species to aflatoxins, quails show intermediate sensitivity, whereas chickens are the most resistant. Hormesis is a dose-response phenomenon characterized by low-dose stimulation and high-dose inhibition. The low-dose stimulation is typically maximal at only about 30 to 60% greater than controls. Hormesis has been noted in regards to changes in body weight in numerous studies, including those performed for the US National Toxicology Program, with over 50 chemicals. The present paper assesses how relatively low levels of aflatoxin consumption in feed may affect the growth rate of chickens. In general, multiple independent investigations have shown that such aflatoxin consumption affects growth in a hormetic-like biphasic manner with a low dose stimulation and a high dose inhibition. Such observations were then generalized to other toxic agents and animal models, suggesting that low doses of stressor agents induce adaptive responses as reflected in accelerated growth rates. The implications of such hormetic dose responses are briefly discussed.

Subchronic mycotoxicoses in rats. Histopathological changes and modulation of the sphinganine to sphingosine (Sa/So) ratio imbalance induced by Fusarium verticillioides culture material, due to the coexistence of aflatoxin B1 in the diet.

Mycotoxicoses are diseases caused by consumption of diets contaminated with mycotoxins, a special class of fungal secondary metabolites. Fumonisin B1 (FB1) and aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), the main toxins synthesized by toxicogenic stocks of Fusarium spp. and Aspergillus spp., respectively, can coexist in grains and in its by-products. We investigated a probable synergism of a fumonisins-containing Fusarium verticillioides culture material and AFB1 in the induction of hepatocyte apoptosis in rats subchronically fed on a mixture of them. Furthermore, the possibility of modifications in the fumonisins-induced Sa/So ratio imbalance in tissues and urine from rats poisoned with this mycotoxin, due to the presence of AFB1 in the diet, was evaluated. The co-exposure to fumonisins and AFB1 produced a higher liver toxicity, with respect to their individual administration, inducing apoptosis and mitotic hepatocytes. There was an inversion of the typical Sa/So ratio in rats fed on the culture material as well as in those subjected to a diet co-contamined with fumonisins and AFB1. Moreover, the later had a synergistic effect in the induction of Sa/So variations in kidneys. Therefore, the mixture of fumonisins and AFB1 induced toxic responses which could not be considered a sum of the effects caused individually by these mycotoxins.

Aflatoxin levels in locally grown maize from Makueni District, Kenya.

OBJECTIVES: Investigations were carried out to determine aflatoxin levels in household maize in Makueni District and to correlate aflatoxin levels to maize drying and storage practices. Also, aflatoxin exposure in villages that reported aflatoxicosis cases in 2005 was compared with that in villages that did not report cases to assess whether aflatoxin exposure levels could be used to identify high-risk villages for targeted prevention interventions. DESIGN: A cross-sectional study. SETTING: Three divisions of Makueni district, Kibwezi, Makindu and Mtito Andei in Eastern Province, Kenya. SUBJECTS: Ninety six households were surveyed, and 104 maize samples were analysed for total aflatoxin levels from June to July 2005. The households were selected from high and low aflatoxicosis risk areas. RESULTS: Out of the 104 maize samples collected from 96 households, 37 (35.5%) had aflatoxin levels above the World Health Organisation (WHO) recommended maximum limit of 20 ppb. All of these samples were homegrown or purchased. Twenty one samples (20.1%) had levels above 100 ppb. Eleven (10.6%) had extremely high levels above 1000 ppb. No relief supply maize had aflatoxin levels above the WHO maximum limit. CONCLUSION: High levels of aflatoxin in homegrown and purchased maize suggested that aflatoxin exposure was widespread.