The effects of five weeks of climbing training, on and off the wall, on climbing specific strength, performance, and training experience in female climbers-A randomized controlled trial.

Recent research has elucidated the effects of strength training on climbing performance. Although local muscular endurance training of the upper-limbs and finger flexors is frequently suggested, there is currently insufficient evidence to support its impact on climbing performance and climbing-specific strength. Furthermore, there is no evidence on climbers' experiences related to training and the likelihood of consistent engagement. In addition, the effects of more climbing-specific strength training on walls with built in lights and adjustable angles have yet to be examined. The low percentage of studies involving female subjects, additionally, demonstrates a significant gap in understanding the specific effects of strength training on women in the context of climbing. The aim of this study was thus to assess the effects of five-week on-, and off-the-wall climbing training on climbing performance, climbing-specific strength, and training experience. Thirty-one female lower-grade to advanced climbers were randomly assigned to either a control group, an off-the-wall training or an on-the-wall training group. Apart from the training regimen, all groups followed their usual climbing and bouldering routine. Subjects trained at least twice a week. Bouldering performance, and maximum strength and muscular endurance of the finger flexors and upper-limbs were assessed before and after the intervention. Furthermore, rate of perceived exertion and discomfort, exercise enjoyment, and exercise pleasure were assessed during the first and last training session, as well as after two and a half weeks of training. Intrinsic training motivation was assessed after the last training session. The results showed trends towards positive effects of off-the-wall training on climbing-specific strength, and on-the-wall training on climbing technique. Furthermore, our finding revealed high exercise enjoyment and intrinsic training motivation for both on- and off-the-wall training. Hence, lower-grade to advanced female climbers should rely on personal training preferences.

Assessing the Impact of Neuromuscular Electrical Stimulation-Based Fingerboard Training versus Conventional Fingerboard Training on Finger Flexor Endurance in Intermediate to Advanced Sports Climbers: A Randomized Controlled Study.

Competitive climbers engage in highly structured training regimens to achieve peak performance levels, with efficient time management as a critical aspect. Neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) training can close the gap between time-efficient conditioning training and achieving optimal prerequisites for peak climbing-specific performances. Therefore, we examined potential neuromuscular adaptations resulting from the NMFES intervention by analyzing the efficacy of twice-weekly NMES-supported fingerboard (hang board) training compared with thrice-weekly conventional fingerboard training over 7 training weeks in enhancing climbing-specific endurance among intermediate to advanced climbers. Participants were randomly divided into the NMES and control groups. Eighteen participants completed the study (14 male, 4 female; mean age: 25.7 ± 5.3 years; mean climbing experience: 6.4 ± 3.4 years). Endurance was assessed by measuring the maximal time athletes could support their body weight (hanging to exhaustion) on a 20 mm-deep ledge at three intervals: pre-, in-between- (after 4 weeks of training), and post-training (after 7 weeks of training). The findings revealed that despite the lower training volume in the NMES group, no significant differences were observed between the NMES and control groups in climbing-specific endurance. Both groups exhibited notable improvements in endurance, particularly after the in-between test. Consequently, a twice-weekly NMES-supported fingerboard training regimen demonstrated non-inferiority to a thrice-weekly conventional training routine. Incorporating NMES into fingerboard workouts could offer time-saving benefits.

Pathomechanics of lumbrical and flexor digitorum profundus muscle tears in climbers: A cadaveric model.

Lumbrical muscles originate on the flexor digitorum profundus (FDP) tendons and, during fist making, they move in the same direction when FDP muscle produces maximal proximal tendon gliding. Injuries of the bipennate lumbricals have been described when a shear force acts between the origins on adjacent tendons of the FDP, as they glide in opposite directions in asymmetric hand postures. Other structures of the deep flexors complex can be affected during this injury mechanism, due to the so-called quadriga effect, which can commonly occur during sport climbing practise. Biomechanical studies are needed to better understand the pathomechanism. A cadaveric study was designed to analyse the effects of load during the fourth lumbrical muscle injury mechanism. The amount of FDP tendon gliding and metacarpophalangeal (MCP) joint flexion of the 5th finger were calculated. Ten fresh-frozen cadaveric specimens (ten non-paired forearms and hands) were used. The specimens were placed on a custom-made loading apparatus. The FDP of the 5th finger was loaded, inducing isolated flexion of the 5th finger, until rupture. The rupture occurred in all specimens, under a load of 11 kg (SD 4.94), at 9.23 mm of proximal tendon gliding (SD 3.55) and at 21.4° (SD 28.91) of MCP joint flexion. Lumbrical muscle detachment from the 4th FDP was observed, from distal to proximal, and changes in FDP tendons at the distal forearm level too. The quadriga effect can lead to injury of the bipennate lumbrical muscles and the deep flexors complex in the hand and forearm.

Myoelectric manifestations of fatigue of the finger flexor muscles and endurance capacity in experienced versus intermediate climbers during suspension tasks.

Climbing is a physically demanding discipline, placing significant loads on the finger flexors. Notwithstanding the documented greater endurance capacity of experienced climbers, the mechanisms explaining these training-induced adaptations remain unknown. We therefore investigate whether two non-competing strategies - muscle adaptation and alternate muscle recruitment - may explain the disparity in endurance capacity in participants with different climbing experience. We analysed high-density surface electromyograms (EMGs) from 38 Advanced and Intermediate climbers, during suspension exercises over three different depths (15, 20, 30 mm) using a half-crimp grip position. From the spatial distribution of changes in MeDian Frequency and Root Mean Square values until failure, we assessed how much and how diffusely the myoelectric manifestations of fatigue took place. Advanced climbers exhibited greater endurance, as evidenced by significantly longer failure time (p < 0.009) and lower changes in MDF values (p < 0.013) for the three grip depths. These changes were confined to a small skin region (nearly 25% of the grid size), centred at variable locations across participants. Moreover, lower MDF changes were significantly associated with longer suspension times. Collectively, our results suggest that muscle adaptation rather than load sharing between and within muscles is more likely to explain the improved endurance in experienced climbers.

Cognitive-behavioural processes during route previewing in bouldering.

INTRODUCTION: In the Olympic climbing discipline of bouldering, climbers can preview boulders before actually climbing them. Whilst such pre-climbing route previewing is considered as central to subsequent climbing performance, research on cognitive-behavioural processes during the preparatory phase in the modality of bouldering is lacking. The present study aimed at extending existing findings on neural efficiency processes associated with advanced skill level during motor activity preparation by examining cognitive-behavioural processes during the previewing of boulders. METHODS: Intermediate (n = 20), advanced (n = 20), and elite (n = 20) climbers were asked to preview first, and then attempt two boulders of different difficulty levels (boulder 1: advanced difficulty; boulder 2: elite difficulty). During previewing, climbers' gaze behaviour was gathered using a portable eye-tracker. RESULTS: Linear regression revealed for both boulders a significant relation between participants' skill levels and both preview duration and number of scans during previewing. Elite climbers more commonly used a superficial scan path than advanced and intermediate climbers. In the more difficult boulder, both elite and advanced climbers showed longer preview durations, performed more scans, and applied less often a superficial scan path than in the easier boulder. CONCLUSION: Findings revealed that cognitive-behavioural processes during route previewing are associated with climbing expertise and boulder difficulty. Superior domain-specific cognitive proficiency seems to account for the expertise-processing-paradigm in boulder previewing, contributing to faster and more conscious acquisition of perceptual cues, more efficient visual search strategies, and better identification of representative patterns among experts.

Women at Altitude: Menstrual-Cycle Phase, Menopause, and Exogenous Progesterone Are Not Associated with Acute Mountain Sickness.

Gardner, Laurel, Linda E. Keyes, Caleb Phillips, Elan Small, Tejaswi Adhikari, Nathan Barott, Ken Zafren, Rony Maharjan, and James Marvel. Women at altitude: Menstrual-cycle phase, menopause, and exogenous progesterone are not associated with acute mountain sickness. High Alt Med Biol. 00:000-000, 2024. Background: Elevated progesterone levels in women may protect against acute mountain sickness (AMS). The impact of hormonal contraception (HC) on AMS is unknown. We examined the effect of natural and exogenous progesterone on the occurrence of AMS. Methods: We conducted a prospective observational convenience study of female trekkers in Lobuche (4,940 m) and Manang (3,519 m). We collected data on last menstrual period, use of exogenous hormones, and development of AMS. Results: There were 1,161 trekkers who met inclusion criteria, of whom 307 (26%) had AMS. There was no significant difference in occurrence of AMS between women in the follicular (28%) and the luteal (25%) phases of menstruation (p = 0.48). The proportion of premenopausal (25%) versus postmenopausal women (30%) with AMS did not differ (p = 0.33). The use of HC did not influence the occurrence of AMS (HC 23% vs. no HC 26%, p = 0.47), nor did hormonal replacement therapy (HRT) (HRT 11% vs. no HRT 31%, p = 0.13). Conclusion: We found no relationship between menstrual-cycle phase, menopausal status, or use of exogenous progesterone and the occurrence of AMS in trekkers and conclude that hormonal status is not a risk factor for AMS. Furthermore, women should not be excluded from future AMS studies based on hormonal status.

Nutritional physiology and body composition changes during a rapid ascent to high altitude.

Exposure to high altitude might cause the body to adapt with negative energy and fluid balance that compromise body composition and physical performance. In this field study involving 12 healthy adults, sex-balanced, and aged 29 ± 4 years with a body mass index of 21.6 ± 1.8 kg/m2, we investigated the effects of a 4-day trekking up to 4556 m a.s.l. on Monte Rosa (Alps, Italy). The food intake was recorded using food diaries and nutrient averages were calculated. The bio-impedance analysis was performed at low and high altitudes, and a wearable biosensor (Swemax) was used to track hydro-saline losses in two participants. Daily total energy intake was 3348 ± 386 kcal for males and 2804 ± 415 kcal for females (13%-14% protein, 35% fat, 44%-46% carbohydrates). Although there was a significant body weight loss (65.0 ± 9.3 vs. 64.2 ± 9.10 kg, p < 0.001, d = 1.398), no significant changes in body composition parameter were found but a trend in the increase of the bioelectrical phase angle in males (p = 0.059, d = -0.991). Body water percentage significantly changed (p = 0.026, η2 p = 0.440), but the absolute water did not, suggesting that the weight loss was not due to water loss. Salivary and urinary osmolality did not change. A reduction in sweat rate at higher altitudes was observed in both participants. Interestingly, salivary leptin increased (p = 0.014, η2 p = 0.510), and salivary ghrelin decreased (p = 0.036, η2 p  = 0.403). Therefore, the 4-day trekking at altitude of hypoxia exposure induced changes in satiety and appetite hormones. High altitude expeditions require more specific nutritional guidance, and using multiplex analysis could help in monitoring fluid balance and body composition.

Simulations of the human heat balance during Mount Everest summit attempts in spring and winter.

The majority of research dealing with the impacts of the Himalayan climate on human physiology focuses on low air temperature, high wind speed, and low air pressure and oxygen content, potentially leading to hypothermia and hypoxia. Only a few studies describe the influence of the weather conditions in the Himalayas on the body's ability to maintain thermal balance. The aim of the present research is to trace the heat exchange between humans and their surroundings during a typical, 6-day summit attempt of Mount Everest in the spring and winter seasons. Additionally, an emergency night outdoors without tent protection is considered. Daily variation of the heat balance components were calculated by the MENEX_HA model using meteorological data collected at automatic weather stations installed during a National Geographic expedition in 2019-2020. The data represent the hourly values of the measured meteorological parameters. The research shows that in spite of extreme environmental conditions in the sub-summit zone of Mount Everest during the spring weather window, it is possible to keep heat equilibrium of the climbers' body. This can be achieved by the use of appropriate clothing and by regulating activity level. In winter, extreme environmental conditions in the sub-summit zone make it impossible to maintain heat equilibrium and lead to hypothermia. The emergency night in the sub-peak zone leads to gradual cooling of the body which in winter can cause severe hypothermia of the climber's body. At altitudes < 7000 m, climbers should consider using clothing that allows variation of insulation and active regulation of their fit around the body.

Comparison of finger flexion strength and muscular recovery of male lead sport climbers across climbing classes.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to compare finger flexor strength (FS), finger flexor muscle recovery (FR), and forearm circumference (FC) across three different climbing classes in male lead sport climbers. METHODS: A total of 37 male lead sport climbers were classified into low (LC), intermediate (IC), and advanced classes (AC) categories according to the International Rock Climbing Research Association (IRCRA) Scale. All participants measured FS three times for both open grip (OG) and crimp grip (CG). Following FS measurement, the FR was observed immediately after the all-out training. The FC was measured twice using an inelastic tape. RESULTS: The FS differed significantly across climbing classes for both grip styles and hands, regardless of dominant hand, with the higher classes showing greater FS (all, p ≤ 0.001). FR was significantly higher in AC compared to IC and LC at 5 min (all, p ≤ 0.001), 10 min (all, p ≤ 0.005) and 15 min (all, p ≤ 0.005). The FC showed significant differences with climbing classes for both forearms. CONCLUSION: Climbing classes are associated with differences in FS, with higher class corresponding to greater FS. Similarly, climbing classes are linked to FR and FC, with higher classes being associated with faster recovery and larger FC.

Análisis de la ingesta nutricional en corredores de montaña durante una prueba deportiva / Analysis of nutritional intake in trail runners during competition

INTRODUCCIÓN: durante los últimos 20 años se ha producido un incremento en el número de pruebas de deportes de resistencia, así como en el de participantes en las mismas. Un plan nutricional adecuado es esencial para la realización satisfactoria de este tipo de pruebas, tanto en deportistas profesionales como en amateurs. OBJETIVOS: el objetivo de este trabajo fue determinar, evaluar y comparar con las recomendaciones científicas actuales el consumo de carbohidratos, agua y sodio por parte de los participantes de una prueba de carrera de montaña. METODOLOGÍA: la competición realizada por los deportistas fue el "Medio Trail de Alcoy 2019" (Alcoy, España), con un recorrido de 30 km. Tras la realización de la prueba, los participantes rellenaron un cuestionario sobre el consumo de alimentos y bebidas realizado durante la misma, además de contestar a otras preguntas sobre hábitos nutricionales en general. En el estudio se incluyeron 11 participantes que cumplían los criterios de inclusión. RESULTADOS: el resultado obtenido para la ingesta media de carbohidratos fue de 14,93 g/h, para la de sodio de 146,42 mg/h y para la de agua de 399,73 mL/h. El 27 % de los participantes acudía al dietista-nutricionista de manera habitual y ninguno de ellos reportó problemas del tracto gastrointestinal durante la prueba. CONCLUSIONES: el consumo de carbohidratos y de sodio realizado por los participantes fue bajo con respecto a las recomendaciones científicas actuales; no obstante, el consumo de agua fue adecuado conforme a las mismas. Se aconseja a los deportistas de resistencia acudir a un dietista-nutricionista especializado para alcanzar un rendimiento óptimo en las competiciones

INTRODUCTION: there has been an increase in the number of endurance sports events during the last 20 years, as well as in the number of their participants. An adequate nutritional plan is essential for a satisfactory performance in this type of events, both in professional and amateur athletes. OBJECTIVES: the objective was to determine, evaluate, and compare with the current scientific recommendations the consumption of carbohydrates, water, and sodium by participants in a trail-running event. METHODS: the competition completed by the athletes was the "Medio Trail de Alcoy 2019" (Alcoy, Spain), with a distance of 30 km. After completing the race, participants filled out a questionnaire about their food and drink consumption during the event, in addition to other questions about their nutritional habits in general. Eleven participants who met the inclusion criteria were included in the study. RESULTS: the result obtained for average carbohydrate intake was 14.93 g/h, for sodium intake was 146.42 mg/h, and for water intake was 399.73 mL/h. In all, 27 % of participants visited a dietitian-nutritionist on a regular basis, and none reported gastrointestinal tract issues during the race. CONCLUSIONS: the carbohydrate and sodium consumption of participants was low as compared to current scientific recommendations; however, water consumption was adequate according to them. Our advice for endurance athletes is visit a specialized dietitian-nutritionist to achieve optimal performance in competitions

Influencia del desnivel en la carga física del corredor de montaña: un estudio de caso / Slope Influence on the Trail Runner Physical Load: A Case Study

Este estudio analizó las exigencias de carga interna (Frecuencia cardíaca, FC) y externa (Velocidad; Player Load, PL; Power Metabolic, PM; Stiffness Vertical, KVERT; entropía aproximada, ApEn) producidas en función del desnivel del terreno en una carrera de montaña. Un atleta de nivel nacional (edad: 25.3 años; altura: 172 cm; peso: 67 kg; VO2MAX: 70.2 ml/kg/min) participó en una prueba oficial (Distancia: 27.6 km; Desnivel acumulado: 973 m), siendo analizado en 6 segmentos respecto al desnivel (sin desnivel, positivo y negativo). El registro de datos se realizó mediante un dispositivo inercial WIMU PROTM (RealTrack Systems, Almería, España). Los resultados muestran un aumento de PL/min y PM/min en desnivel negativo y de FCAVG en desnivel positivo. KVERT y ApEn fueron más bajos en desnivel positivo, mientras que la velocidad fue mayor sin desnivel. Se encuentra gran variabilidad en las exigencias en función de la orografía del terreno, siendo importante su análisis para el diseño específico del entrenamiento y la planificación del evento

This study analysed the internal (heart rate, HR) and external load demands (Speed; Player Load, PL; Power Metabolic, PM; Vertical stiffness, KVERT; approximated entropy, ApEn) during a trail running race in relation to the slope. A national-level athlete (age: 25.3 years; height: 172 cm; weight: 67 kg; VO2MAX: 70.2 ml/kg/min) participated in an official race (Distance: 27.6 km; Accumulated slope: 973 m), analysed in 6 segments related to the slope (without, positive and negative slope). Data was registered through an inertial device WIMU PROTM (RealTrack Systems, Almería, Spain). The results show an increase of PL/min and PM/min in negative slope and an increase of HRAVG in positive slope. KVERT and ApEn were lower in positive slope, while velocity was faster without slope. It is found a great variability in the trail runner demands related to terrain orography, being important its analysis to design specific training sessions and race planning

Cambios hormonales en soldados aclimatados durante una marcha en gran altitud con esquí de montaña / Hormonal changes in acclimatized soldiers during a march at a high altitude with mountain skis

Background: The aim of the present study is to identify the physiological impact of acute exposure to high altitudes on special acclimatized troops of the Chilean Army. Twenty-nine soldiers carried out a nocturnal winter march on mountain skis at an initial altitude of 2,800 m and up to 3,640 m. Two separate blood measurements were taken. The first one was taken the day before the march (Pre-sample) and the second one just after returning to the base camp (Post-sample). All subjects had been acclimatized prior to the study. For hypothesis comparison purposes, the normality of the distribution was tested using the Shapiro-Wilk test. To determine if there were significant differences between the Pre and Post tests, a paired-samples Student t-test was applied for the variables with a normal distribution, and the Wilcoxon test was applied for the variables without a normal distribution. In all cases, a level of significance of 95% (p<0.05) was taken into consideration. Results: Exposure of acclimatized troops to altitudes of 2,800 m to 3,640 m has an impact on the endocrine parameters and on the reduction of cortisol (p<0.01), total testosterone (p<0.0001), free testosterone (p<0.0001) and the free testosterone-cortisol ratio (p<0.01). Likewise, an increase in total leukocytes (p<0.0001), neutrophils (p<0.0001), monocytes (p<0.0001) and basophils (p<0.001), as well as a decrease of eosinophils (p<0.0001) and lymphocytes (p<0.01), was observed. No hematological changes were detected. Conclusions: Endocrine changes were observed during high-altitude winter marches on mountain skis carried out by accli-matized Special Operation Troops, resulting in decreased cortisol and free and total testosterone levels. A stress condition due to the high altitudes also affected the anabolic/catabolic environment, which manifested as a significant decrease in the free testosterone/cortisol ratio. No hematological changes were identified. Marked changes were observed in some white cell series

Introducción: El objetivo del presente estudio es identificar el impacto fisiológico (con especial atención a los parámetros endocrinos y hematológicos) de la exposición aguda a gran altitud (GA) en tropas especiales aclimatadas del Ejército de Chile. Veintinueve soldados llevaron a cabo una marcha nocturna con esquí de montaña invernal a una GA de 2.800 m. hasta 3.640 m. Se tomaron dos muestras de sangre. La primera muestra fue tomada el día antes de la marcha (Pretest) y la segunda muestra justo después al regresar al campamento base Post test (a los 2.800 m). Todos los sujetos se encontraban aclimatados antes del estudio. Para cada análisis se testeo la normalidad de las distribuciones empleando el test de Shapiro-Wilk. Se calculó el promedio y la desviación estándar para cada medición. Para determinar si existían diferencias significativas entre el pre y post test se aplicó la prueba de t-Student pareada para las variables con distribución normal y el test de Wilcoxon para las variables que no tenían distribución normal. En todos los casos se consideró un nivel de confianza de 95% (valor p < 0,05). Resultados: La exposición de las tropas aclimatadas a GA tiene un impacto en los parámetros endocrinos y en la reducción de cortisol (p <0,01), testosterona total (p <0,0001), testosterona libre (p <0,0001) y el ratio testosterona libre-cortisol (p <0.01). Asimismo, se observaron un aumento de leucocitos (p <0,0001), neutrófilos (p <0,0001), monocitos (p <0,0001) y basófilos (p <0,001), así como una decrease de eosinófilos (p <0,0001) y linfocitos (p < 0.01). No se observaron cambios en la serie roja. Conclusiones: La marcha invernal nocturna con esquí de montaña en GA para tropas de operaciones especiales aclimatadas presento cambios endocrinos con disminución del cortisol, testosterona libre y total. Una condición de estrés por la marcha en GA también afectó al ambiente anabólico/catabólico, lo que se ve reflejado en una disminución significativa en el cociente testosterona libre/cortisol. No se observaron cambios hematológicos. Se observaron cambios significativos en algunas células de la serie blanca

Effects of high altitude mountaineering on body composition: a systematic review / Efectos del alpinismo de altitud en la composición corporal: revisión sistemática

High altitude mountaineering is characterized by high energetic requirements due to the environment in which the activity is developed: negative energy balance, extreme cold, high altitude and the assumption of potential risks can be found during the practice of this sport. High altitude mountaineering, as a result of the previous factors, induces changes in body composition which have never been studied previously in a systematic review. A search within four different databases (PubMed, SportDiscus, Scopus and Medline) was performed using the thesaurus terms "Mountaineering" and "Body composition". A second search was performed using the following terms "Altitude" and "Body composition". The selection criteria included studies with healthy adults which evaluated the effects of at least 14 days of uninterrupted stays at altitudes above 4,000 m. The studies included in the review assessed body composition through different methods such as anthropometry, bioimpedance, dual energy x-ray absorptiometry, hydrostatic weighing and air displacement plethysmography. The search was performed up to and including December 1st 2018. Eleven observational studies met the inclusion criteria. All studies reported weight loss, of which five reported significant reductions in lean mass and six reported reductions in fat mass. Also, three studies reported reductions in both fat mass and lean mass. Current evidence is limited to observational studies with important confounding factors affecting the final conclusions. Longitudinal studies with a better methodological design and control groups are needed in order to verify these results

El alpinismo a grandes altitudes se caracteriza por elevados requerimientos energéticos debido al ambiente en el que se desarrolla la actividad: los balances energéticos negativos, el frío extremo, la exposición a la altitud o niveles de estrés elevados se pueden observar en la práctica de este deporte. Debido a estos factores, el alpinismo de altitud induce cambios en la composición corporal que no se han estudiado previamente en una revisión sistemática. Se realizó una búsqueda en cuatro bases de datos (PubMed, SportDiscus, Scopus and Medline) con los términos Mesh "Mountaineering" y "Body composition". Una segunda búsqueda se realizó usando los términos "Altitude" y "Body composition". Los criterios de selección incluyeron estudios con adultos sanos que evaluaron los efectos de estancias de al menos 14 días ininterrumpidos en altitudes superiores a los 4.000 m. La composición corporal se analizó con diferentes métodos como antropometría, bioimpedancia, absorciometría dual de rayos x, pesada hidrostática y pletismografía por desplazamiento de aire. La búsqueda se realizó incluyendo estudios fechados hasta el 1 de diciembre de 2018. Once estudios observacionales cumplieron con los criterios de inclusión. Todos los estudios reportaron pérdida de peso, de los cuales cinco reportaron reducciones en masa magra; seis, reducciones en masa grasa; y tres, reducciones en ambas. La evidencia actual se limita a estudios observacionales con factores de confusión importantes que afectan a los resultados finales. Se necesitan estudios longitudinales con mejor diseño metodológico y grupo control para verificar estos resultados

Evolución de las variables antropométricas en relación con los parámetros de entrenamiento y nutricionales en corredores de ultrarresistencia de montaña / Evolution in anthropometric variables related to training and nutritional parameters in ultraendurance mountain runners

Introducción: los hábitos alimentarios y de entrenamiento provocan modificaciones en los parámetros antropométricos. Objetivos: analizar la evolución de las variables antropométricas en las once semanas previas a la competición en corredores de montaña populares e identificar los factores que explican dicha evolución. Métodos: veintidós varones (media de edad: 41,4 ± 4,1 años), corredores de montaña recreacionales de ultrarresistencia, participaron en el estudio. Se midieron las variables antropométricas once semanas antes (pre-test) y en los días previos (post-test) a la competición objetivo del año. Los corredores realizaron un registro de su entrenamiento diario durante este periodo. Además, autocumplimentaron la primera y la última semana de estudio el "recordatorio de 24 horas" sobre la ingesta de alimentos, registrando dos días laborales y uno festivo. Resultados: se encontró un descenso significativo en peso; índice de masa corporal; pliegues subescapular, supraespinal, abdominal y pierna; sumatorio de seis y ocho pliegues; perímetro del brazo corregido; área muscular transversal del brazo; porcentaje y peso graso; peso residual; y endomorfia. También hubo un aumento significativo del porcentaje de masa ósea y muscular, el índice ponderal y la ectomorfia. El análisis correlacional y la regresión lineal mostraron que estos cambios estaban relacionados con factores nutricionales, tales como el porcentaje de grasa consumida en el pre-test, las kilocalorías consumidas en el post-test y/o la diferencia en el porcentaje de grasas y kilocalorías consumidas entre ambas mediciones. No hubo relación con las variables de entrenamiento. Conclusiones: los cambios antropométricos están influenciados en mayor medida por los hábitos alimentarios que por el entrenamiento en corredores de montaña recreacionales

Introduction: eating and training habits induce modifications in the anthropometric parameters. Objectives: to analyze the evolution of the anthropometric variables in the eleven previous weeks to the competition in recreational mountain runners and to identify the factors that could explain those changes. Methods: twenty-two recreational ultra-endurance mountain runners (mean age: 41.4 ± 4.1 years) took part in the study. Anthropometric variables were measured in the eleventh week before (pre-test) and in the previous days before (post-test) the main competition of the year. Runners registered their daily training during the study. Furthermore, they self-filled the "24-hour reminder" test about food intake, two week days and a weekend day, the first and last week of the study. Results: it was found a significant decrease in weight; body mass index; subscapular, supraspinal, abdominal and calf skinfolds; six and eight skinfold sums; corrected arm girth, arm transversal muscle area; fat weight and percentage; residual mass; and endomorphy. Bone and muscle mass, ponderal index and ectomorphy showed a significant increase. Correlation analysis and linear regression showed that changes are due to nutritional factors, as fat percentage intake in pre-test, kilocalorie intake in the post-test and/or the differences in the fat percentage and kilocalorie intake between both measurements. Conclusions: changes in anthropometric variables are influenced by nutritional habits instead of training factors in recreational mountain runners

Profiling and predicting performance of indoor rock climbers / Perfil e predição do desempenho de escaladores indoor

Abstract The aim of this study is to establish somatotype and profile the anthropometric and biomotor characteristics of indoor rock climbers. Fourteen elite level male and ten recreational female Iranian indoor rock climbers completed a battery of tests. All anthropometric measurements were performed according to the recommendations of international standards for anthropometric assessment. Upper body strength and endurance were assessed by isometric tests. Explosive power and balance were also evaluated by Sargent jump and Star Excursion Balance Test (SEBT), respectively. Samples' somatotypes were calculated by the method of Heath and Carter. Pearson's correlation coefficient and partial correlations were calculated and stepwise multiple regression analyses were implemented to determine a set of best predictors of elite male climbers' ability. Shoulder width, body fat content, upper-body strength and endurance for females, showed the most correlation with the climbing ability (range: r = 0.46-0.7, p ≤ 0.05), while among the male samples, these correlations with the climbing ability were mostly between WHR, absolute and relative to body mass handgrip strength, SEBT performance and the left-hand digit ratio. The results of stepwise multiple regression revealed that the SEBT performance in the posterior direction of right foot stance and Upper Extremity Girth Index are able to explain 62% of the variance of climbing ability. It is likely that decreasing the fat mass has no direct impact on the climbers' performance. Also, SEBT performance is able to predict 35% of climbing performance. Hence, it seems balance exercises could be effective in improvement of climbing performance.

Resumo O objetivo do estudo foi estabelecer o somatotipo, o perfil antropométrico e neuromotor de escaladores indoor. Quatorze atletas do sexo masculino de elite e 10 atletas recreacionais do sexo feminino do Irã da modalidade escalada indoor participaram da pesquisa. Todas as medidas antropométricas foram coletas conforme padronizações internacionais. Força e resistência dos membros superiores foram avaliadas por teste isométrico. Força explosiva e equilíbrio foram avaliados pelos testes Sargent jump e Star Excursion Balance (SEBT), respectivamente. O somatotipo foi calculado pelo método Heath e Carter. O coeficiente de correlação de Pearson, correlações parciais e a análise de regressão múltipla foram utilizados. Largura do ombro, percentual de gordura corporal, força e resistência dos membros superiores para as mulheres apresentaram correlação positiva com a capacidade de escalar (ranque: r = 0,46-0,70, p ? 0,05). Para os homens, a habilidade de escalar foi associada com a razão cintura estatura, força de preensão manual absoluta e relativa à massa corporal, ao equilíbrio e a proporção digital da mão esquerda. O desempenho no SEBT e o índice de circunferência dos membros superiores tiveram o poder de explicar 62% na variação da capacidade de escalar. É provável que diminuir a massa de gordura não tenha impacto direto no desempenho dos escaladores. Além disso, o desempenho do SEBT é capaz de prever 35% do desempenho de escalada. Portanto, parece que os exercícios de equilíbrio podem ser eficazes na melhoria do desempenho de escalada.

Respirar en altitudes extremas - Proyectos científicos "EVEREST" (Segunda parte) / Breathing at extreme altitudes - Scientific projects "EVEREST" (Second part)

Escalar el punto más alto de la Tierra, el Mt. Everest (8.848 m), sin equipos de oxígeno conlleva una demanda fisiológica que está próxima a la máxima capacidad de tolerancia humana. Exponerse a altitudes extremas condiciona drásticamente la función pulmonar, el nivel de oxígeno y el rendimiento físico. Esta revisión reúne interesantes aspectos respiratorios, de gases sanguíneos y ejercicio aeróbico aportados por aquellos proyectos científicos que han llevado a cabo mediciones fisiológicas entre 8.000 m y 8.848 m, en altitud real o simulada, como las Operaciones "Everest I" (1946), "Everest II" (1985) y "Everest III-COMEX" (1997), y las Expediciones "AMREE" (1981), "British 40th Anniversary Everest" (1993) y "Caudwell Xtrem Everest" (2007). Estos fascinantes eventos de investigación, junto a otros destacados proyectos biomédicos realizados a más de 5.500 m, muy especialmente las Expediciones "Silver Hut" (1960-61), "Italiana all’Everest" (1973) y "British Everest Medical" (1994), incluyendo aquellas pioneras observaciones científicas llevadas a cabo en el s.XIX hasta los más recientes proyectos de investigación realizados, han sentado las bases del conocimiento sobre la tolerancia humana ante niveles de hipoxia hipobárica extrema, donde el pulmón y la cadena respiratoria adquieren un trascendente protagonismo requiriéndose de finos ajustes fisiológicos que garanticen la oxigenación celular. Asimismo, se exponen ciertos aspectos geofísicos, factores climáticos y otros condicionantes ambientales que limitan la viabilidad biológica y pueden afectar la salud respiratoria de los alpinistas situados en las cotas superiores de la troposfera a la latitud subtropical donde se encuentra ubicada dicha montaña. Actualmente cientos de alpinistas intentan alcanzar la cumbre del Mt. Everest todos los años, pero solo algunos consiguen su objetivo sin inhalar oxígeno suplementario, entre ellos algunos excepcionalmente dotados nativos Sherpa, protagonistas de insospechadas hazañas en la montaña más elevada de la superficie terrestre, cuya cima roza el límite fisiológico de supervivencia para el ser humano

Climbing to the highest height on Earth, the Mt. Everest (8.848 m), without supplementary oxygen equipment involves a physiological demand that is close to the maximum human tolerance. Exposures at extreme altitudes drastically conditions lung function, stores of oxygen and physical performance. This review brings interesting aspects about respiration, blood gases and aerobic exercise reported by those scientific projects that have carried out physiological measurements between 8,000 m and 8,848 m above sea level, under real or simulated altitude: the Operations "Everest I" (1946), "Everest II" (1985), "Everest III-COMEX" (1997), and the Expeditions "AMREE" (1981), "British 40th Anniversary Everest" (1993), and "Caudwell Xtrem Everest" (2007). These fascinating scientific research events, along with other outstanding biomedical expeditions performed above 5,500 m, like especially the "Silver Hut" (1960-61), "Italiana all’Everest" (1973), and "British Everest Medical" (1994), including those pioneer scientific reports made on the XIX century until the most recent research projects performed, have laid the foundations and knowledge on the human tolerance to such extreme levels of hypobaric hypoxia, where the lung, breathing and respiratory chain takes on a major role requiring fine physiological adjustments to ensure cellular oxygenation. Geophysical aspects, climatic factors and other environmental conditions that limit the biological viability and can affect the respiratory health of climbers on the upper troposphere zone at the subtropical latitude where that mountain is located are likewise reviewed and analyzed. Every year, hundreds of climbers try to reach the top of Mt. Everest, but only a few of them achieved their goal without inhaling supplemental oxygen, including some exceptionally gifted Sherpa natives, protagonist on unsuspected exploits in the highest mountain on terrestrial surface, whose summit touch the physiological limit of survival for the human being

Respirar en altitudes extremas. Proyectos científicos "EVEREST" (Primera parte) / Breathing at extreme altitudes. Scientific projects "EVEREST" (First part)

Escalar el punto más alto de la Tierra, el Mt. Everest (8.848 m), sin equipos de oxígeno conlleva una demanda fisiológica que está próxima a la máxima capacidad de tolerancia humana. Exponerse a altitudes extremas condiciona drásticamente la función pulmonar, el nivel de oxígeno y el rendimiento físico. Esta revisión reúne interesantes aspectos respiratorios, de gases sanguíneos y ejercicio aeróbico aportados por aquellos proyectos científicos que han llevado a cabo mediciones fisiológicas entre 8.000 m y 8.848 m, en altitud real o simulada, como las Operaciones "Everest I" (1946), "Everest II" (1985) y "Everest III-COMEX" (1997), y las Expediciones "AMREE" (1981), "British 40th Anniversary Everest" (1993) y "Caudwell Xtrem Everest" (2007). Estos fascinantes eventos de investigación, junto a otros destacados proyectos biomédicos realizados a más de 5.500 m, muy especialmente las Expediciones "Silver Hut" (1960-61), "Italiana all'Everest" (1973) y "British Everest Medical" (1994), incluyendo aquellas pioneras observaciones científicas llevadas a cabo en el s.XIX hasta los más recientes proyectos de investigación realizados, han sentado las bases del conocimiento sobre la tolerancia humana ante niveles de hipoxia hipobárica extrema, donde el pulmón y la cadena respiratoria adquieren un trascendente protagonismo requiriéndose de finos ajustes fisiológicos que garanticen la oxigenación celular. Asimismo, se exponen ciertos aspectos geofísicos, factores climáticos y otros condicionantes ambientales que limitan la viabilidad biológica y pueden afectar la salud respiratoria de los alpinistas situados en las cotas superiores de la troposfera a la latitud subtropical donde se encuentra ubicada dicha montaña. Actualmente cientos de alpinistas intentan alcanzar la cumbre del Mt. Everest todos los años, pero solo algunos consiguen su objetivo sin inhalar oxígeno suplementario, entre ellos algunos excepcionalmente dotados nativos Sherpa, protagonistas de insospechadas hazañas en la montaña más elevada de la superficie terrestre, cuya cima roza el límite fisiológico de supervivencia para el ser humano

Climbing to the highest height on Earth, the Mt. Everest (8.848 m), without supplementary oxygen equipment involves a physiological demand that is close to the maximum human tolerance. Exposures at extreme altitudes drastically conditions lung function, stores of oxygen and physical performance. This review brings interesting aspects about respiration, blood gases and aerobic exercise reported by those scientific projects that have carried out physiological measurements between 8,000 m and 8,848 m above sea level, under real or simulated altitude: the Operations "Everest I" (1946), "Everest II" (1985), "Everest III-COMEX" (1997), and the Expeditions "AMREE" (1981), "British 40th Anniversary Everest" (1993), and "Caudwell Xtrem Everest" (2007). These fascinating scientific research events, along with other outstanding biomedical expeditions performed above 5,500 m, like especially the "Silver Hut" (1960-61), "Italiana all’Everest" (1973), and "British Everest Medical" (1994), including those pioneer scientific reports made on the XIX century until the most recent research projects performed, have laid the foundations and knowledge on the human tolerance to such extreme levels of hypobaric hypoxia, where the lung, breathing and respiratory chain takes on a major role requiring fine physiological adjustments to ensure cellular oxygenation. Geophysical aspects, climatic factors and other environmental conditions that limit the biological viability and can affect the respiratory health of climbers on the upper troposphere zone at the subtropical latitude where that mountain is located are likewise reviewed and analyzed. Every year, hundreds of climbers try to reach the top of Mt. Everest, but only a few of them achieved their goal without inhaling supplemental oxygen, including some exceptionally gifted Sherpa natives, protagonist on unsuspected exploits in the highest mountain on terrestrial surface, whose summit touch the physiological limit of survival for the human being

Patología médica no traumática en pacientes rescatados en montaña / Nontraumatic medical emergencies in mountain rescues

Objetivo. Describir las características clínico-epidemiológicas de los pacientes rescatados por la unidad de rescate de montaña del 061 de Aragón que presentaron patologías médicas no traumáticas. Método. Estudio observacional retrospectivo de los rescates de montaña realizados entre julio de 2010 y diciembre de 2016. Resultados. Se analizaron 164 pacientes con patología médica de origen no traumático durante el rescate (82,3% varones). El intervalo de edad más frecuente fue de 50 a 59 años. El 36,6% presentaban patologías relacionadas con el medio, siendo la hipotermia la más frecuente. El 20,7% fue patología cardiaca y el 12,8% fueron problemas digestivos. La actividad practicada por los pacientes fue el senderismo/montañismo en un 82% de las ocasiones. Conclusiones. Se observa un aumento del número de pacientes rescatados con patología médica no traumática en los últimos años, y destaca el aumento de problemas cardiacos. El paciente tipo esperable sería un varón de entre 50 y 59 años practicando senderismo en época estival (AU)

Objective. To describe the clinical and epidemiologic characteristics of patients with nontraumatic medical problems rescued by a Spanish mountain emergency response service (061 Aragon). Methods. Retrospective observational analysis of records of mountain rescues completed between July 2010 and December 2016. Results. A total of 164 patients with nontraumatic medical emergencies were rescued; 82.3% were males. Most patients were between the ages of 50 and 59 years. Environmentally related problems, most often hypothermia, accounted for 36.6% of the emergencies. Cardiac problems led to 20.7% and digestive problems to 12.8%. Eighty-two percent of the patients were hiking or engaged in general mountain activities (other than rock climbing, canyoning, hunting, or skiing). Conclusion. Recent years have seen a rise in the number of patients requiring rescue from mountains for nontraumatic medical emergencies, particularly heart problems. The typical patient to expect would be a man between the ages of 50 and 59 years who is hiking in the summer (AU)

Estimación de la saturación arterial de oxígeno en función de la altitud / Estimation of arterial oxygen saturation in relation to altitude

Fundamento y objetivos. La saturación arterial de oxígeno (SAO) es capaz de predecir el desarrollo de mal de altura. Objetivos: estimar los valores de SAO en función de la altitud y, adicionalmente, diseñar un gráfico para usar sobre el terreno que muestre la saturación esperada para cada altitud y sus límites de normalidad. Pacientes y método. Se registraron valores de SAO a los participantes de 8 actividades de alta montaña en los Alpes, el Himalaya, el Cáucaso y los Andes. Participaron 53 montañeros; 17 de ellos repitieron en más de una actividad. Se registraron 761 mediciones de SAO. Resultados. Se diseñó un modelo de regresión lineal múltiple para estimar los valores de SAO en función de la altitud, ajustados por distintos posibles factores relacionados. Existe una fuerte relación lineal entre altitud y SAO (R2=0,83, p<0,001), dando valores 0,7 puntos mayores en mujeres. La SAO a una determinada altitud no se relaciona con la edad, el peso, la talla, el tabaquismo, la frecuencia cardíaca ni con la experiencia previa en montaña. El cálculo de la estimación de la SAO responde a la siguiente ecuación: SAO=103,3-(altitud×0,0047)+(Z), siendo Z=0,7 en hombres y 1,4 en mujeres. Se ha diseñado una gráfica de coordenadas que relaciona la altitud con los valores estimados de SAO con sus límites de normalidad: percentiles 2,5 y 97,5. Conclusiones. La sencillez en el cálculo de la SAO estimada para una determinada altitud mediante la gráfica propuesta ayudará en la toma de decisiones precoces sobre el terreno (AU)

Background and objectives. Arterial Oxygen Saturation (AOS) predicts altitude sickness. Objectives: To estimate the AOS values with relation to altitude. Furthermore, make a graph to use during activity which assesses the AOS for each altitude and the normal range. Patients and method. Values of AOS were assessed during eight high mountain activities in the Alps, Himalaya, Caucasus and Andes; 53 mountaineers participated, 17 of them in more than one activity; 761 measurements of AOS were registered. Results. A Logistic Regression Model was made to estimate the AOS values dependent on altitude, adjusted to possible related factors. A strong lineal relationship exists between altitude and AOS (R2=.83, P<.001); .7 points more in women. The AOS in a particular altitude is not related to age, weight, height, smoking, heart rate, or even with previous experiences in mountains. The calculation of the AOS responds to the follow equation: Blood Oxygen Saturation=103.3-(altitude × .0047)+(Z), being Z=.7 in men and 1.4 in women. A scatter plot was made to relate the estimated altitude with the AOS, with their normal limits values: percentiles 2.5 and 97.5. Conclusions. The simple calculation of the AOS estimated for a particular altitude with the proposed graphic can help in the early decision-making onsite (AU)

Efectos de la ingesta voluntaria de líquidos (agua y bebida deportiva) en corredores por montaña amateurs / Effects of voluntary intake of fluids (water and sports drink) in amateur mountain runners

Introducción: las carreras por montaña de 21 km y 1.000 metros de desnivel pueden suponer un riesgo si no se mantiene una adecuada reposición hídrica. Objetivo: conocer los niveles de deshidratación y evaluar las diferencias entre una carrera con ingesta voluntaria de agua (CcA) y bebida deportiva (CcB). Método: 18 sujetos de 31,9 (±2,8) años y %MG 10,53 (±2,8), completaron una CcA o una CcB. Se evaluó el efecto de CcA y CcB sobre cada variable; Peso (P), Masa Grasa (MG), Glucosa (GL), Lactato (LT), Tensión Arterial Sistólica (TAS) y Diastólica (TAD), Pulsaciones por Minuto (PPM) y Temperatura Timpánica (Tª). Estas fueron tomadas al inicio (T1) y al final (T2) de cada prueba. Los efectos se calcularon con la ANOVA Friedman. Las diferencias en las variables tiempo de carrera (TC), % de pérdida de peso (%PP) y líquido ingerido (LI) se evaluaron con la prueba de Wilcoxon. Todos los cálculos se realizaron con el SPSS versión 20.0 (IBM, Somers, NY, USA). Resultado: el % PP fue de 2,967 (± 0,969) y 2,883 (± 0,730), para CcA y CcB. En TC, %PP y LI no hay diferencias (p > .05) entre carreras. Para CcA en función del tiempo, son significativos (p < .05) los cambios en: P, %MG, GL, L, TAS y PPM. Para CcB en función del tiempo, solo son significativos en P y PPM. Conclusiones: ningún líquido consigue evitar que los deportistas se deshidraten. No obstante, los efectos de la deshidratación son mucho más severos ingiriendo solo agua (AU)

Introduction: 21 K and 1 000 m ascent trail-running races can be dangerous if an appropriate liquid replacement isn’t maintained. Objectives: know trail-runners level of dehydration and assess the differences between ad libitum water (CcA) and sport drink (CcB) hydration after a trail running race. Methods: 18 subjects, mean age 31.9 (±2.8) and %MG 10.53 (±2.8), completed CcA or CcB. CcA and CcB effects on Weight (P), Fat Mass (MG), Glucose (GL), Lactate (LT), Systolic (TAS) and Diastolic Arterial Tension (TAD), Heart Rate (PPM) and Tympanic Temperature (Tª) were assessed. All measurements were taken at the start (T1) and the finish (T2) of each race. A Friedman ANOVA test was used to calculate the effect of CcA and CcB on each variable. Differences between race time (TC), % bodyweight loss (%PP) and liquid ingestion (LI) were assessed with a Wilcoxon test. All statistical analysis were conducted with SPSS version 20.0 (IBM, Somers, NY, USA). Results: mean %PP was 2.967 (± 0.969) and 2.883 (± 0.730) for CcA and CcB respectively. No significant differences were found between %PP and LI (p > .05) between races. Significant changes were found in P, %MG, GL, L, TAS and PPM between T1 and T2 in CcA condition. While only significant changes in P and PPM were stabilised between T1 and T2 in CcB condition. Conclusions: neither water or sport drink ingestion avoid trail-runners to reach a dehydrated state. However, dehydration effects seems to be more serious when only water is ingested (AU)