Is highly expressed ACE 2 in pregnant women "a curse" in times of COVID-19 pandemic?

Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE 2) is a membrane-bound enzyme that cleaves angiotensin II (Ang II) into angiotensin (1-7). It also serves as an important binding site for SARS-CoV-2, thereby, facilitating viral entry into target host cells. ACE 2 is abundantly present in the intestine, kidney, heart, lungs, and fetal tissues. Fetal ACE 2 is involved in myocardium growth, lungs and brain development. ACE 2 is highly expressed in pregnant women to compensate preeclampsia by modulating angiotensin (1-7) which binds to the Mas receptor, having vasodilator action and maintain fluid homeostasis. There are reports available on Zika, H1N1 and SARS-CoV where these viruses have shown to produce fetal defects but very little is known about SARS-CoV-2 involvement in pregnancy, but it might have the potential to interact with fetal ACE 2 and enhance COVID-19 transmission to the fetus, leading to fetal morbidity and mortality. This review sheds light on a path of SARS-CoV-2 transmission risk in pregnancy and its possible link with fetal ACE 2.

Understanding and Preventing Placenta-Mediated Pregnancy Complications.

Placenta-mediated pregnancy complications are clinically important conditions and include preeclampsia, placental abruption, intrauterine growth restriction, and late fetal loss. Pathophysiology is complex, and may be linked to prothrombotic disorders such as antiphospholipid syndrome, whose understanding is still evolving. In this narrative review, we will present the latest evidence to better understand hemostatic mechanisms of preeclampsia, as well as in women with placenta-mediated pregnancy complications and inherited thrombophilia or antiphospholipid antibodies. Using four clinical scenarios, the mixed results of preventive efforts through the use of antithrombotic drugs (aspirin, heparin) will be discussed. We will also review knowledge gaps and ongoing research.

Predicting fetal loss in severe acute pancreatitis during pregnancy: a 5-year single-tertiary-center retrospective analysis.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the factors that predict fetal loss in patients with severe acute pancreatitis. METHODS: A total of 96,132 cases including 215 patients with acute pancreatitis were evaluated, and 83 cases with severe acute pancreatitis were included in the study. Clinical data and maternal complications were analyzed. RESULTS: The incidence of acute pancreatitis during pregnancy was 2.24%, of which 38.6%had severe acute pancreatitis. The maternal mortality and fetal mortality were 3.6% and 32.5%, respectively. Hypertriglyceridemia (HTG) was the most common cause of severe acute pancreatitis during pregnancy and, along with delayed diagnosis, was related to fetal loss. The incidence of maternal complications including multiple organ failure (MOF), gestation diabetes mellitus, and preeclampsia was higher in pregnancies with fetal loss compared with those without fetal loss. In multivariable analysis, the independent predictors associated with fetal loss were gestational age (odds ratio [OR],0.183; 95% confidence interval [CI],0.049-0.677; P = 0.0112), HTG (OR,3.477; 95% CI, 2.152-6.674; P = 0.028), time from onset to diagnosis (OR,2.311; 95% CI,1.958-2.967;P = 0.032), MOF (OR,6.579; 95% CI,2.225-9.873; P = 0.039), gestational diabetes mellitus (OR,5.854; 95% CI,3.043-8.661; P = 0.024), and preeclampsia (OR,6.351; 95% CI,3.667-8.965; P = 0.013). A prediction model incorporating these factors demonstrated an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve of 0.909. CONCLUSION: Severe acute pancreatitis during pregnancy leads to a high rate of fetal mortality. Gestational trimester, delayed diagnosis, HTG, MOF, gestational diabetes mellitus, and preeclampsia are predictors of fetal loss. Therefore, close monitoring is essential for pregnancies complicated with HTG, diabetes mellitus, and hypertension.

Why do community members believe mothers and babies are dying? Behavioral versus situational attribution in rural northern Ghana.

OBJECTIVE: Rates of maternal and neonatal death remain high in the Global South, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa. In addition, indicators vary significantly by geography. This study aimed to understand what communities in northern Ghana with frequent maternal and newborn deaths or near deaths (near-misses) perceive to be the causes. As part of a larger study, four communities in Ghana's Northern Region were identified as areas with high concentrations of deaths and near-misses of mothers and babies. DESIGN: Stakeholders were interviewed using in-depth interviews (IDIs) and focus-group discussions (FGDs). Field workers conducted 12 FGDs and 12 IDIs across a total of 126 participants. SETTING: This exploratory descriptive study was conducted in the East Mamprusi District in the Northern Region of Ghana, in the communities of Jawani, Nagboo, Gbangu and Wundua. PARTICIPANTS: FGDs were led by trained field workers and attended by traditional chiefs and their elders, members of women's groups, and traditional birth attendants in each of the four study communities. IDIs, or one-on-one interviews, were conducted with traditional healers who manage maternal and neonatal cases, community health nurses, and midwives. MEASUREMENTS AND FINDINGS: Qualitative data were audio-recorded, transcribed, and thematically analyzed using the Attride-Sterling analytical framework. Discussions focused on where blame should be attributed for the negative outcomes of mothers and babies - with blame either being directed at the actions or inactions of the mothers (behavioral), or at the larger factors associated with poverty (situational) that necessitate mothers' behavior. For example, some respondents blamed women for their poor diets, while others blamed the lack of money or household support to buy nutritious foods. Blame was rarely attributed to the fathers despite local gender norms of males being the household decision-makers with regard to spending and care-seeking. KEY CONCLUSIONS: These findings contribute to a small but growing body of literature on the blaming of mothers for their own deaths and those of their newborns - a phenomenon also described in high-income countries - and is supported by blame attribution theories that explain the self-protective nature of victim-blaming. IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE: These results carry important implications for education and intervention design related to maternal and neonatal mortality, including more focused efforts at incorporating men and the larger community. More research is warranted on blame attribution for these adverse outcomes and its effects on the victims.

Tendências recentes dos óbitos fetais por malformações congênitas: um estudo descritivo / Recent trends in fetal death due to congenital malformations: a descriptive study / Tendencias recientes de los óbitos de fetos por malformaciones congénitas: un estudio descriptivo

Este artigo se baseia em um estudo de série temporal sobre os óbitos fetais por malformações congênitas no estado do Maranhão relativo ao período de 2006 a 2016. Foram construídos indicadores epidemiológicos para estimar o risco de morte fetal e sua tendência ao longo da série estudada. Os dados são provenientes do Departamento de Informática do SUS e sua análise realizada por modelos de regressão linear. Foram registrados 17.843 óbitos fetais no período abordado pelo estudo, 528 dos quais decorrentes de malformações congênitas (2,96%). Observou-se uma tendência significativa de aumento do coeficiente de mortalidade fetal geral, correspondente a 6,99% (ß1=0,17; p=0,004) e do específico por malformações congênitas, equivalente a 5,13% (ß1=0,01; p=0,04). Os resultados deste estudo corroboram a tendência histórica dos serviços de saúde negligenciarem os óbitos fetais. É importante destacar que parte destes óbitos são preveníveis e potencialmente evitáveis. Desse modo, a implementação dos comitês de investigação de óbitos fetais e infantis e a sua vigilância adequada poderiam melhorar a assistência prestada tanto no pré-natal quanto no parto.

This article bases on a time series study about fetal deaths due to congenital malformations in the state of Maranhão, Brazil, occurred from 2006 to 2016. Epidemiological indicators were constructed to estimate the risk of fetal death and its trend throughout the series studied. The data were obtained in the Department of Informatics of SUS and analyzed by linear regression models. There were 17,843 fetal deaths during the analysed period, from which 528 were a direct result of congenital malformations (2.96%). A significant tendency towards an increase in the coefficient of general fetal mortality corresponding to 6.99% (ß1=0.17; p=0.004) and in the coefficient of specific fetal mortality due to congenital malformations equivalent to 5.13% (ß1=0.01; p=0.04) were observed. The end results of this study corroborate the historical trend toward negligence in Brazilian health centres with regard to fetal deaths. It is important to remark that some of these deaths can be presumed and potentially preventable. Thus, the implementation of the fetal and infant death investigation committees and their adequate surveillance could improve care during prenatal and delivery.

Este artículo se basa en un estudio de serie temporal acerca de muertes de fetos por malformaciones congénitas en el estado de Maranhão, Brasil, concerniente al periodo de 2006 a 2016. Se construyeron indicadores epidemiológicos para estimar el riesgo de la muerte fetal y su tendencia a lo largo de la serie estudiada. Los datos son provenientes del Departamento de Informática del SUS y fueron analizados por modelos de regresión lineal. Se registraron 17.843 muertes de fetos en el período estudiado, de los cuales 528 fueron resultado de malformaciones congénitas (2,96%). Se observó una tendencia significativa al aumento del coeficiente de mortalidad fetal general correspondiente a 6.99% (ß1=0,17; p=0,004) y del específico, por malformaciones congénitas, equivalente a 5,13% (ß1=0,01; p=0,04). Los resultados del estudio corroboran la tendencia histórica a la negligencia de los centros de salud brasileños con respecto a las muertes de los fetos. Por su importancia debemos destacar que parte de esas muertes son presumibles y pueden ser evitadas. De ese modo, la implementación de los comités de investigación de muertes de fetos y infantiles y su vigilancia adecuada podrían mejorar la asistencia prestada en el prenatal y en el parto.

[Decrease in foetal and neonatal mortality in the Netherlands; comparison with other Euro-Peristat countries in 2004, 2010 and 2015]. / Afname van foetale en neonatale sterfte in Nederland.

OBJECTIVE: To compare changes in foetal, neonatal and perinatal mortality in the Netherlands in 2015, relative to 2004 and 2010, with changes in other European countries and regions. DESIGN: Descriptive population-wide study. METHOD: Data from 32 European countries and regions within the Euro-Peristat registration area were analysed. These countries and regions were grouped into: the Netherlands, Scandinavia, Western Europe and Eastern Europe. International differences in registration and policies were taken into account by using rates from 28 weeks gestation for foetal mortality and for 24 weeks gestation and beyond for neonatal mortality. Ranking was based on individual countries and regions. RESULTS: Foetal mortality decreased by 24% in the Netherlands, from 2.9 per 1,000 births in 2010 to 2.2 per 1,000 births in 2015; neonatal mortality decreased by 9%, from 2.2 to 2.0 per 1,000 live births. Perinatal mortality (the sum of foetal mortality and neonatal mortality) decreased by 18% from 5.1 to 4.2 per 1,000 births. The Netherlands moved from the 18th place in the European ranking in 2004 to the 10th place in 2015. CONCLUSION: Foetal, neonatal and perinatal mortality in the Netherlands decreased in 2015 when compared with 2004 and 2010. The country's position in the European ranking also improved. Explanations for this decrease are related to changes in the areas of organisation of care, population and risk factors. When mortality rates in other European countries and regions - particularly Scandinavia - are considered there is room for further improvement.

A Prospective Cohort Study Examining the Associations of Maternal Arsenic Exposure With Fetal Loss and Neonatal Mortality.

Arsenic crosses the placenta, possibly increasing the risk of adverse reproductive outcomes. We aimed to examine the association between maternal arsenic exposure and fetal/neonatal survival using data from a prospective cohort study of 1,616 maternal-infant pairs recruited at a gestational age of ≤16 weeks in Bangladesh (2008-2011). Arsenic concentration in maternal drinking water was measured at enrollment. Extended Cox regression (both time-dependent coefficients and step functions) was used to estimate the time-varying association between maternal arsenic exposure and fetal/neonatal death (all mortality between enrollment and 1 month after birth). In a sensitivity analysis, we assessed gestational arsenic exposure using maternal urine samples taken at enrollment. We observed 203 fetal losses and 20 neonatal deaths. Higher arsenic exposure was associated with a slightly decreased mortality rate up to the middle of the second trimester, and then the mortality rate switched directions around 20 weeks' gestation. In the step function model, the hazard ratios for combined mortality (fetal loss and neonatal death) per unit increase in the natural log of drinking water arsenic concentration (µg/L) ranged from 1.35 (95% CI: 1.08, 1.69) in weeks 25-28 to 0.81 (95% CI: 0.65, 1.02) in weeks 9-12. This nonlinear association suggests that arsenic may exert survival pressure on developing fetuses, potentially contributing to survival bias, and may also indicate that arsenic toxicity differs by fetal developmental stage.

Prevalence and maternal socio-demographic factors associated with stillbirth in health facilities in Anambra, South-East Nigeria.

BACKGROUND: Stillbirth is a major adverse perinatal outcome especially in low and middle income countries across the globe. Certain factors relating to mothers from such countries may be associated with this adverse condition. OBJECTIVES: To determine the prevalence of stillbirth and also explore the maternal socio-demographic factors associated with stillbirth among mothers in rural communities in Anambra Central Senatorial District of Anambra State Nigeria who gave birth between January 2012 and December 2016. METHODS: All case files of mothers who were delivered of their babies were accessed at the sampled health facilities in the district. Data were collected using a structured proforma. A total of 313 stillbirth cases were recorded across the health facilities from 2012-2016. RESULTS: The highest prevalence of stillbirth was recorded in 2012 (38.07 per 1,000 total births). The prevalence of stillbirth was significantly associated with the maternal level of education, occupation, age and type of health facility the mother utilized (p<0.05). CONCLUSIONS: We recommend that women empowerment should be a priority at both family and community levels to enable women to seek and obtain necessary care during pregnancy and delivery.

Multiple birth rates of Korea and fetal/neonatal/infant mortality in multiple gestation.

OBJECTIVE: This study was conducted to analyze recent trends of multiple birth rates (MBR) and fetal/neonatal/infant mortalities according to the number of gestations in Korea. METHODS: Data from 2009 to 2015 of live births, infant deaths and stillbirths were obtained from the Korean Vital Statistics. Neonatal mortality rate (NMR), infant mortality rate (IMR), and fetal mortality rate (FMR) in singleton, twin and triplet pregnancies were analyzed according to gestational period (GP; ≤ 23, 24-27, 28-31, and 32-36 weeks). RESULTS: From 2009 to 2015, twin and triplet birth rates increased 34.5% and 154.3%, respectively. In twin births, NMR and FMR have been decreased significantly (from 10.92 to 8.62, p = 0.034 and from 41.00 to 30.55, p< 0.001, respectively), but IMR did not show significant decrease. There was no significant change of NMR, IMR, and FMR, in triplet births. Overall, in singleton, twin, and triplet births, NMR was 1.26 ± 0.09, 10.6 ± 1.12, and 34.32 ± 11.72, respectively, and IMR was 2.38 ± 0.26, 14.52 ± 1.38, and 41.13 ± 12.2, respectively. FMRs were 12 ± 1.73, 35.99 ± 3.55, and 88.85 ± 16.55, respectively, in singleton, twin, and triplet pregnancies. In spite of decreasing trends in overall mortalities, the odds ratios of NMRs and IMRs in 2015 were approximately 9-fold and 6-fold higher, respectively, in twin births, and approximately 37-fold and 20-fold higher, respectively, in triplet births, than those in singleton births. There were no significant differences in odds ratios of NMRs and IMRs at GP 32-36 among single, twin, and triplet births, although the odds ratios of FMR at GP 32-36 in triplet gestation was significantly higher than those in singleton and twin gestation. CONCLUSION: Neonatal/infant mortality in multiple births is still significantly high, which is mainly related with preterm birth. Close fetal monitoring is needed to prevent fetal death in triplet pregnancies, after 32 gestational weeks.

Evolution of fetal mortality in the setting of Argentine socioeconomic inequalities. Period 2007-2014. / Evolución de la mortalidad fetal, inmersa en las desigualdades socioeconómicas de la República Argentina. Período 2007-2014.

INTRODUCTION: Few studies have established a relationship between adverse social conditions by geographic area (GA) and fetal mortality (FM). Objective. To assess health inequalities in relation to FM by GA. POPULATION AND METHODS: Descriptive, ecological study. The principal components of 525 GAs were analyzed. A socioeconomic status indicator and indices of inequality were developed and estimated, and the FM ratio was calculated. RESULTS: The Kunst and Mackenbach relative index of inequality ranged from 1.8 to 1.4 in the 2007/2008 and 2013/2014 biennia, and a higher FM ratio was estimated for the highly unfavorable socioeconomic level stratum. CONCLUSION: The FM ratio is higher in this stratum. The gap between the ends of the socioeconomic spectrum narrowed towards the latest biennium. Regardless of this, in the GAs with a very unfavorable socioeconomic status, the FM ratio reduced in the latest biennium and increased in those with a very favorable socioeconomic status.

Introducción. Pocos estudios relacionaron las condiciones sociales adversas en cuanto a áreas geográficas (AG) con la mortalidad fetal (MF). Objetivo. Evaluar la desigualdad en salud en la MF según las AG. Población y métodos. Estudio descriptivo ecológico. Se analizaron los componentes principales de 525 AG. Se construyó y calculó el indicador de situación socioeconómica e índices de desigualdad, y se estimó la razón de mortalidad fetal (RMF). Resultados. El índice relativo de desigualdad de Kunst y Mackenbach varió de 1,8 a 1,4 para los bienios 2007/2008-2013/2014, y se estimó la mayor RMF para el estrato de situación socioeconómica muy desfavorable. Conclusión. La RMF es mayor para dicho estrato. La brecha entre los extremos de situación socioeconómica disminuyó hacia el último bienio. Independientemente, para las AG de situación socioeconómica muy desfavorable, la RMF descendió en el último bienio y, para las de situación socioeconómica muy favorable, se incrementó.

Maternal and fetal mortality in sub-Saharan Africa / Mortalidad materno-fetal en África subsahariana

Objective: The problem of maternal mortality in regions such as sub-Saharan Africa, which reaches average values almost 100 times higher than in developed countries, is framed in the Millennium Development Goals. Our main objective was to estimate the factors involved in high maternal mortality. Material and methods: We designed an ecological, cross-sectional study taking the individual country as a unit of analysis. Results: We obtained significant correlations between the maternal mortality rate and infantile mortality rate, institutional deliveries, 4 visits during pregnancy, and fertility index (p <0.05). We observed a clear decrease in the maternal mortality rate as the socioeconomic level increased. Conclusions: The results show that maternal mortality is influenced primarily by factors associated with health care, followed by socioeconomic factors. The methodological limitations of this study prevent us from establishing causal relationships (AU)

Objetivo: la elevada mortalidad materna en regiones como África Subsahariana constituye un problema enmarcado en los Objetivos del Milenio, alcanzando cifras medias casi 100 veces superiores que los países desarrollados. Nuestro objetivo principal fue estimar los factores implicados en ella. Material y métodos: diseñamos un estudio ecológico y transversal usando cada país como unidad de análisis. Resultados: obtuvimos correlaciones especialmente significativas entre la tasa de mortalidad materna y la tasa de mortalidad infantil, partos institucionales, realización de 4 visitas durante la gestación e índice de fertilidad (p < 0,05). Obtuvimos una franca disminución de la tasa de mortalidad materna conforme aumentábamos los diferentes grados socioeconómicos, a excepción del índice de desigualdad de género (que expresó una relación inversa a las demás). Conclusiones: conforme a los resultados obtenidos, encontramos una mortalidad materna influenciada primariamente por factores derivados de la asistencia sanitaria y secundariamente por otros de índole socioeconómica. Las limitaciones metodológicas de este diseño nos impiden establecer relaciones de causalidad (AU)

Does the Use of Diagnostic Technology Reduce Fetal Mortality?

OBJECTIVE: To examine the effect that the introduction of new diagnostic technology in obstetric care has had on fetal death. DATA SOURCE: The Medical Birth Registry of Norway provided detailed medical information for approximately 1.2 million deliveries from 1967 to 1995. Information about diagnostic technology was collected directly from the maternity units, using a questionnaire. STUDY DESIGN: The data were analyzed using a hospital fixed-effects regression with fetal mortality as the outcome measure. The key independent variables were the introduction of ultrasound and electronic fetal monitoring at each maternity ward. Hospital-specific trends and risk factors of the mother were included as control variables. The richness of the data allowed us to perform several robustness tests. PRINCIPAL FINDING: The introduction of ultrasound caused a significant drop in fetal mortality rate, while the introduction of electronic fetal monitoring had no effect on the rate. In the population as a whole, ultrasound contributed to a reduction in fetal deaths of nearly 20 percent. For post-term deliveries, the reduction was well over 50 percent. CONCLUSION: The introduction of ultrasound made a major contribution to the decline in fetal mortality at the end of the last century.

Cardiovascular outcomes of pregnancy in Marfan's syndrome patients: A literature review.

AIMS: Pregnancy in patients with Marfan's syndrome (MFS) carries an increased risk of cardiovascular complications, resulting in increased maternal and fetal mortality and morbidity. Literature on MFS pregnant patients is relatively sparse, and there has yet to be a concrete consensus on the management of this unique patient population. The purpose of our paper is to provide a literature review of case reports and studies on MFS during pregnancy (published between 2005 and 2015) and to explore cardiovascular outcomes of patients with MFS. METHODS AND RESULTS: Of the 852 women in our review, there were 1112 pregnancies, with an aortic dissection rate of 7.9% and mortality of 1.2%. Data demonstrated a trend that patients whose aortic diameter ≥40 mm had a greater rate of dissection than MFS patients whose aortic diameter <40 mm (Fisher's exact test, P = .0504). Fetal outcome included a 5.6% mortality rate and 41% of births were cesarean deliveries and of those reported, 75% secondary to cardiac emergencies. CONCLUSIONS: Patients with MFS, especially those whose initial aortic diameters ≥40 mm, planning a pregnancy or currently pregnant should be carefully counseled about the maternal and fetal risks throughout pregnancy. MFS patients whose aortic diameters ≥40 mm should be advised to ideally await pregnancy until prophylactic aortic surgery. As MFS varies in its phenotypic expression, each patient's risk of adverse cardiac events should be assessed individually through a joint Maternal Fetal Medicine and Cardiology Center.

A national cohort study evaluating infant and fetal mortality caused by birth defects in Korea.

OBJECTIVE: To analyse the prevalence of fetal and infant deaths due to birth defects in Korea and those trends according to maternal age. DESIGN: Retrospective national cohort study SETTING: Korean Vital Statistics database of the Korean Statistical Information Service, between 2009 and 2015. PARTICIPANTS: 2176 infant deaths and 4343 fetal deaths caused by birth defects, among 3 181 145 total live births and 43 385 fetal deaths during the study periods. METHODS: Infant and fetal mortality rates (IMRs and FMRs) by birth defects, from deaths caused by birth defects, were analysed. They were compared, according to maternal age groups: (I) '10-19 years'; (II) '20-29 years'; (III) '30-34 years'; (IV) '35-39 years'; and (V) '40-55 years'. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: IMRs and FMRs by birth defects and comparison according to maternal age group. RESULTS: IMRs and FMRs by birth defects were 6.84 per 10 000 live births and 13.47 per 10 000 total births. The most common causes of infant deaths and fetal deaths by birth defect were anomaly of the circulatory system (51.1%, IMR 3.5) and chromosomal abnormality (33.1%, FMR 4.46), respectively. Among groups by maternal age, FMRs by birth defects were significantly higher in groups I and V compared with group III (OR 6.59, 95% CI 3.49 to 12.43; and OR 3.46, 95% CI 1.77 to 6.78, respectively). IMR and FMR by nervous system anomaly were significantly higher in group I at 3.63 (OR 2.0, 95% CI 1.97 to 2.03) and 29.84 (OR 15.04, 95% CI 3.59 to 62.96) compared with 0.32 and 1.97 in group III. CONCLUSION: FMRs by birth defects were the highest in the extreme maternal age groups. Severe anomalies, except for chromosomal abnormality, were most prevalent in teenage pregnancies.

Disparities in gestational age-specific fetal mortality rates in the United States, 2009-2013.

PURPOSE: Although studies have examined overall temporal changes in gestational age-specific fetal mortality rates, there is little information on the current status of racial/ethnic differences. We hypothesize that differences exist between racial/ethnic groups across gestational age and that these differences are not equally distributed. METHODS: Using the 2009-2013 data from US fetal death and live birth files for non-Hispanic white (NHW); non-Hispanic black (NHB); Hispanic; and American Indian/Alaska Native (AIAN) women, we conducted analyses to examine fetal mortality rates and estimate adjusted prevalence rate ratios and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). RESULTS: There were lower risks of fetal mortality among NHB women (aPRR = 0.76; 95% CI = 0.71-0.81) and Hispanic women (aPRR = 0.89; 95% CI = 0.83-0.96) compared with NHWs at 22-23 weeks' gestation. For NHB women, the risk was higher starting at 32-33 weeks (aPRR = 1.11; 95% CI = 1.04-1.18) and continued to increase as gestational age increased. Hispanic and AIAN women had lower risks of fetal mortality compared with NHW women until 38-39 weeks. CONCLUSIONS: Further examination is needed to identify causes of fetal death within the later pregnancy period and how those causes and their antecedents might differ by race and ethnicity.

The Change of Perinatal Mortality Over Three Decades in a Reference Centre in the Aegean Region: Neonatal Mortality has decreased but Foetal Mortality Remains Unchanged.

BACKGROUND: Perinatal, foetal and neonatal mortality statistics are important to show the development of a health care system in a country. However, in our country there are very few national and regional data about the changing pattern of perinatal neonatal mortality along with the development of new technologies in this area. AIMS: Evaluation of the changes in mortality rates and the causes of perinatal and neonatal deaths within years in a perinatal reference centre which serves a high-risk population. STUDY DESIGN: Cross-sectional retrospective study. METHODS: The perinatal, neonatal and foetal mortality rates in the years 1979-1980 (1st time point) and 1988-1989 (2nd time point) were compared with the year 2008 (3rd time point). The causes of mortality were assessed by Wigglesworth classification and death reports. The neonatal mortality in the neonatal intensive care unit was also calculated. RESULTS: Foetal mortality rates were 44/1000, 31.4/1000 and 41.75/1000 births, perinatal mortality rates were 35.6/1000, 18.8/1000 and 9/1000 births, and neonatal mortality rates were 35.6/1000, 18.8/1000 and 9/1000 live births for the three study time points, respectively. The mortality rate in neonatal intensive care unit decreased consistently from 33%, to 22.6% and 10%, respectively, together with decreasing neonatal mortality rates. The causes of perinatal deaths were foetal death 85%, immaturity 4%, and lethal congenital malformations 8% according to Wigglesworth classification in 2008, showing the high impact of foetal deaths on this high perinatal mortality rate. Infectious causes of neonatal deaths decreased but congenital anomalies increased in the last decades. CONCLUSION: Although neonatal mortality rate decreased significantly; foetal mortality rate has stayed unchanged since the late eighties. In order to decrease foetal and perinatal mortality rates more efficiently, reducing consanguineous marriages and providing better antenatal care for high risk pregnancies are needed.

Trends in Fetal and Perinatal Mortality in Korea (2009-2014): Comparison with Japan and the United States.

Fetal death is an important indicator of national health care. In Korea, the fetal mortality rate is likely to increase due to advanced maternal age and multiple births, but there is limited research in this field. The authors investigated the characteristics of fetal deaths, the annual changes in the fetal mortality rate and the perinatal mortality rate in Korea, and compared them with those in Japan and the United States. Fetal deaths were restricted to those that occurred at 20 weeks of gestation or more. From 2009 to 2014, the overall mean fetal mortality rate was 8.5 per 1,000 live births and fetal deaths in Korea, 7.1 in Japan and 6.0 in the United States. While the birth rate in Korea declined by 2.1% between 2009 and 2014, the decrease in the number of fetal deaths was 34.5%. The fetal mortality rate in Korea declined by 32.9%, from 11.0 in 2009 to 7.4 in 2014, the largest decline among the 3 countries. In addition, rates for receiving prenatal care increased from 53.9% in 2009 to 75.0% in 2014. Perinatal mortality rate I and II were the lowest in Japan, followed by Korea and the United States, and Korea showed the greatest decrease in rate of perinatal mortality rate II. In this study, we identified that the indices of fetal deaths in Korea are improving rapidly. In order to maintain this trend, improvement of perinatal care level and stronger national medical support policies should be maintained continuously.

County-level Variation in Infant Mortality Reporting at Early Previable Gestational Ages.

BACKGROUND: Infant mortality rate (IMR), or number of infant deaths per 1000 livebirths, varies widely across the US While fetal deaths are not included in this measure, reported infant deaths do include those delivered at previable gestations, or ≤20 weeks gestation. Variation in reporting of these events may have a significant impact on IMR estimates. METHODS: This retrospective analysis used US National Center for Health Statistics 2007-2013 data from 2391 US counties. Counties were categorised by US region, demographic characteristics, and state-level fetal death reporting requirements. County percentage of fetal deaths among all 17-20 week fetal and infant deaths was evaluated using multivariable linear regression. County-level characteristics were then included in multivariable linear regression to determine the associated change in county IMR. RESULTS: County percentage of deaths at 17-20 weeks reported as fetal ranged from 0% to 100% (mean 63.7%). Every 1 point increase in this percentage was associated with a 0.02 point decrease in county IMR (95% confidence interval (CI) 0.02, 0.03). When county IMRs were recalculated holding the percentage of fetal vs. infant deaths at 17-20 weeks constant at 63.7%, results suggest that the predicted gap in county IMR between Northeast and Midwest regions would narrow by 0.45 points. CONCLUSIONS: Variable reporting of previable fetal and infant deaths may compromise the validity of county IMR comparisons. Improved consistency and accuracy of fetal and infant death reporting is warranted.