Evaluating the mosquito vector range for two orthobunyaviruses: Oya virus and Ebinur Lake virus.

BACKGROUND: Mosquito-borne viruses cause various infectious diseases in humans and animals. Oya virus (OYAV) and Ebinur Lake virus (EBIV), belonging to the genus Orthobunyavirus within the family Peribunyaviridae, are recognized as neglected viruses with the potential to pose threats to animal or public health. The evaluation of vector competence is essential for predicting the arbovirus transmission risk. METHODS: To investigate the range of mosquito vectors for OYAV (strain SZC50) and EBIV (strain Cu20-XJ), the susceptibility of four mosquito species (Culex pipiens pallens, Cx. quinquefasciatus, Aedes albopictus, and Ae. aegypti) was measured through artificial oral infection. Then, mosquito species with a high infection rate (IR) were chosen to further evaluate the dissemination rate (DR), transmission rate (TR), and transmission efficiency. The viral RNA in each mosquito sample was determined by RT-qPCR. RESULTS: The results revealed that for OYAV, Cx. pipiens pallens had the highest IR (up to 40.0%) among the four species, but the DR and TR were 4.8% and 0.0%, respectively. For EBIV, Cx. pipiens pallens and Cx. quinquefasciatus had higher IR compared to Ae. albopictus (1.7%). However, the EBIV RNA and infectious virus were detected in Cx. pipiens pallens, with a TR of up to 15.4% and a transmission efficiency of 3.3%. CONCLUSIONS: The findings indicate that Cx. pipiens pallens was susceptible to OYAV but had an extremely low risk of transmitting the virus. Culex pipiens pallens and Cx. quinquefasciatus were susceptible to EBIV, and Cx. pipiens pallens had a higher transmission risk to EBIV than Cx. quinquefasciatus.

The transmission ecology of Tahyna orthobunyavirus in Austria as revealed by longitudinal mosquito sampling and blood meal analysis in floodplain habitats.

BACKGROUND: Tahyna orthobunyavirus (TAHV) is a mosquito-borne virus that may cause mild flu-like symptoms or neurological symptoms in humans. It is historically associated with floodplain habitats in Central Europe, and the mammalophilic floodwater mosquito, Aedes vexans, is thought to be the principal vector. There are few contemporary reports of TAHV transmission ecology within mosquitoes or their vertebrate hosts, and virus infections are rarely reported (and probably seldom diagnosed). The objectives of this study were to survey the mosquito population for TAHV in three floodwater habitats and describe host usage by the predominant floodwater mosquito species to potentially define TAHV transmission at these foci. METHODS: We performed longitudinal mosquito sampling along three major rivers in eastern Austria to characterize the mosquito community in floodplain habitats, and tested for the presence of TAHV in pools of mosquitoes. We characterized TAHV rescued from mosquito pool homogenate by sequencing. We surveyed mosquito host selection by analyzing mosquito blood meals. RESULTS: We identified TAHV in two pools of Ae. vexans captured along the Leitha River. This mosquito, and other floodwater mosquitoes, used large mammals (red deer, roe deer, wild boar) as their hosts. The sequence of the rescued virus was remarkably similar to other TAHV isolates from the region, dating back to the first isolate of TAHV in 1958. CONCLUSIONS: In general, we confirmed that TAHV is most likely being transmitted by Ae. vexans, although the precise contribution of vertebrate-amplifying hosts to the ecological maintenance of the virus is unclear. The pattern of host selection matches the estimated exposure of the same large mammal species in the region to TAHV based on a recent serosurvey, but hares were also hosts at the site where TAHV was detected. We also confirm humans as hosts of two floodwater mosquito species, providing a potential mechanism for spillover of TAHV or other mosquito-borne viruses.

Epidemiology of Shuni Virus in Horses in South Africa.

The Orthobunyavirus genus, family Peribunyaviridae, contains several important emerging and re-emerging arboviruses of veterinary and medical importance. These viruses may cause mild febrile illness, to severe encephalitis, fetal deformity, abortion, hemorrhagic fever and death in humans and/or animals. Shuni virus (SHUV) is a zoonotic arbovirus thought to be transmitted by hematophagous arthropods. It was previously reported in a child in Nigeria in 1966 and horses in Southern Africa in the 1970s and again in 2009, and in humans with neurological signs in 2017. Here we investigated the epidemiology and phylogenetic relationship of SHUV strains detected in horses presenting with febrile and neurological signs in South Africa. In total, 24/1820 (1.3%) horses submitted to the zoonotic arbovirus surveillance program tested positive by real-time reverse transcription (RTPCR) between 2009 and 2019. Cases were detected in all provinces with most occurring in Gauteng (9/24, 37.5%). Neurological signs occurred in 21/24 (87.5%) with a fatality rate of 45.8%. Partial sequencing of the nucleocapsid gene clustered the identified strains with SHUV strains previously identified in South Africa (SA). Full genome sequencing of a neurological case detected in 2016 showed 97.8% similarity to the SHUV SA strain (SAE18/09) and 97.5% with the Nigerian strain and 97.1% to the 2014 Israeli strain. Our findings suggest that SHUV is circulating annually in SA and despite it being relatively rare, it causes severe neurological disease and death in horses.

Orthobunyaviruses in the Caribbean: Melao and Oropouche virus infections in school children in Haiti in 2014.

We report the identification of two orthobunyaviruses, Melao virus (MELV) and Oropouche virus (OROV), in plasma specimens from Haitian children with acute febrile illness who presented during outbreaks caused by alpha- and flaviviruses in 2014. Heretofore not described as a human pathogen, MELV was isolated in cell culture from the plasma of five case patients. OROV RNA was detected in the plasma of an additional child, using an unbiased sequencing approach, with phylogenetic inference suggesting a close relationship with strains from Brazil. Abdominal pain was reported by four case patients with MELV infections, with lymphadenopathy noted in two cases. Our findings document the occurrence of these orthobunyaviruses within the Caribbean region and highlight the critical importance of surveillance with viral genome sequence analyses to identify outbreaks caused by these and other emerging viruses.

Comparative characterization of the reassortant Orthobunyavirus Ngari with putative parental viruses, Bunyamwera and Batai: in vitro characterization and ex vivo stability.

Bunyamwera (BUNV), Batai (BATV) and Ngari (NRIV) are mosquito-borne viruses that are members of the genus Orthobunyavirus in the order Bunyavirales. These three viruses are enveloped with single-stranded, negative-sense RNA genomes consiting of three segments, denoted as Small (S), Medium (M) and Large (L). Ngari is thought to be the natural reassortant progeny of Bunyamwera and Batai viruses. The relationship between these 'parental' viruses and the 'progeny' poses an interesting question, especially given that there is overlap in their respective transmission ecologies, but differences in their infection host ranges and pathogenesis. We compared the in vivo kinetics of these three viruses in a common laboratory system and found no significant difference in growth kinetics. There was, however, a tendency of BATV to have smaller plaques than either BUNV or NRIV. Furthermore, we determined that all three viruses are stable in extracellular conditions and retain infectivity for a week in non-cellular media, which has public health and biosafety implications. The study of this understudied group of viruses addresses a need for basic characterization of viruses that have not yet reached epidemic transmission intensity, but that have the potential due to their infectivity to both human and animal hosts. These results lay the groundwork for future studies of these neglected viruses of potential public and One Health importance.

Emerging orthobunyaviruses associated with CNS disease.

The Orthobunyavirus genus comprises a wide range of arthropod-borne viruses which are prevalent worldwide and commonly associated with central nervous system (CNS) disease in humans and other vertebrates. Several orthobunyaviruses have recently emerged and increasingly more will likely do so in the future. Despite this large number, an overview of these viruses is currently lacking, making it challenging to determine importance from a One Health perspective. Causality is a key feature of determining importance, yet classical tools are unfit to evaluate the causality of orthobunyaviral CNS disease. Therefore, we aimed to provide an overview of orthobunyaviral CNS disease in vertebrates and objectify the causality strength of each virus. In total, we identified 27 orthobunyaviruses described in literature to be associated with CNS disease. Ten were associated with disease in multiple host species of which seven included humans. Seven viruses were associated with both congenital and postnatal CNS disease. CNS disease-associated orthobunyaviruses were spread across all known Orthobunyavirus serogroups by phylogenetic analyses. Taken together, these results indicate that orthobunyaviruses may have a common tendency to infect the CNS of vertebrates. Next, we developed six tailor-made causality indicators and evaluated the causality strength of each of the identified orthobunyaviruses. Nine viruses had a 'strong' causality score and were deemed causal. Eight had a 'moderate' and ten a 'weak' causality score. Notably, there was a lack of case-control studies, which was only available for one virus. We, therefore, stress the importance of proper case-control studies as a fundamental aspect of proving causality. This comprehensible overview can be used to identify orthobunyaviruses which may be considered causal, reveal research gaps for viruses with moderate to low causality scores, and provide a framework to evaluate the causality of orthobunyaviruses that may newly emerge in the future.

Identification of Bunyamwera and Possible Other Orthobunyavirus Infections and Disease in Cattle during a Rift Valley Fever Outbreak in Rwanda in 2018.

In 2018, a large outbreak of Rift Valley fever (RVF)-like illness in cattle in Rwanda and surrounding countries was reported. From this outbreak, sera samples from 157 cows and 28 goats suspected to be cases of RVF were tested to confirm or determine the etiology of the disease. Specifically, the hypothesis that orthobunyaviruses-Bunyamwera virus (BUNV), Batai virus (BATV), and Ngari virus (NRIV)-were co-circulating and contributed to RVF-like disease was tested. Using reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), RVFV RNA was detected in approximately 30% of acutely ill animals, but in all cases of hemorrhagic disease. Seven cows with experienced abortion had positive amplification and visualization by gel electrophoresis of all three segments of either BUNV or BATV, and three of these were suggested to be coinfected with BUNV and BATV. On sequencing, five of these seven cows were conclusively positive for BUNV. However, in several other animals, sequencing was successful for some but not all segments of targeted viruses BUNV and BATV. In addition, there was evidence of RVFV-orthobunyavirus coinfection, through RT-PCR/gel electrophoresis and subsequent Sanger sequencing. In no cases were we able to definitely identify the specific coinfecting viral species. This is the first time evidence for orthobunyavirus circulation has been molecularly confirmed in Rwanda. Furthermore, RT-PCR results suggest that BUNV and BATV may coinfect cattle and that RVFV-infected animals may be coinfected with other orthobunyaviruses. Finally, we confirm that BUNV and, perhaps, other orthobunyaviruses were co-circulating with RVFV and contributed to the burden of disease attributed to RVFV in Rwanda.

Reverse Genetics System for Shuni Virus, an Emerging Orthobunyavirus with Zoonotic Potential.

The genus Orthobunyavirus (family Peribunyaviridae, order Bunyavirales) comprises over 170 named mosquito- and midge-borne viruses, several of which cause severe disease in animals or humans. Their three-segmented genomes enable reassortment with related viruses, which may result in novel viruses with altered host or tissue tropism and virulence. One such reassortant, Schmallenberg virus (SBV), emerged in north-western Europe in 2011. Shuni virus (SHUV) is an orthobunyavirus related to SBV that is associated with neurological disease in horses in southern Africa and recently caused an outbreak manifesting with neurological disease and birth defects among ruminants in Israel. The zoonotic potential of SHUV was recently underscored by its association with neurological disease in humans. We here report a reverse genetics system for SHUV and provide first evidence that the non-structural (NSs) protein of SHUV functions as an antagonist of host innate immune responses. We furthermore report the rescue of a reassortant containing the L and S segments of SBV and the M segment of SHUV. This novel reverse genetics system can now be used to study SHUV virulence and tropism, and to elucidate the molecular mechanisms that drive reassortment events.

Oropouche virus cases identified in Ecuador using an optimised qRT-PCR informed by metagenomic sequencing.

Oropouche virus (OROV) is responsible for outbreaks of Oropouche fever in parts of South America. We recently identified and isolated OROV from a febrile Ecuadorian patient, however, a previously published qRT-PCR assay did not detect OROV in the patient sample. A primer mismatch to the Ecuadorian OROV lineage was identified from metagenomic sequencing data. We report the optimisation of an qRT-PCR assay for the Ecuadorian OROV lineage, which subsequently identified a further five cases in a cohort of 196 febrile patients. We isolated OROV via cell culture and developed an algorithmically-designed primer set for whole-genome amplification of the virus. Metagenomic sequencing of the patient samples provided OROV genome coverage ranging from 68-99%. The additional cases formed a single phylogenetic cluster together with the initial case. OROV should be considered as a differential diagnosis for Ecuadorian patients with febrile illness to avoid mis-diagnosis with other circulating pathogens.

Evolutionary Dynamics of Oropouche Virus in South America.

The Amazon basin is home to numerous arthropod-borne viral pathogens that cause febrile disease in humans. Among these, Oropouche orthobunyavirus (OROV) is a relatively understudied member of the genus Orthobunyavirus, family Peribunyaviridae, that causes periodic outbreaks in human populations in Brazil and other South American countries. Although several studies have described the genetic diversity of the virus, the evolutionary processes that shape the OROV genome remain poorly understood. Here, we present a comprehensive study of the genomic dynamics of OROV that encompasses phylogenetic analysis, evolutionary rate estimates, inference of natural selective pressures, recombination and reassortment, and structural analysis of OROV variants. Our study includes all available published sequences, as well as a set of new OROV genome sequences obtained from patients in Ecuador, representing the first set of genomes from this country. Our results show differing evolutionary processes on the three segments that comprise the viral genome. We infer differing times of the most recent common ancestors of the genome segments and propose that this can be explained by cryptic reassortment. We also present the discovery of previously unobserved putative N-linked glycosylation sites, as well as codons that evolve under positive selection on the viral surface proteins, and discuss the potential role of these features in the evolution of OROV through a combined phylogenetic and structural approach.IMPORTANCE The emergence and reemergence of pathogens such as Zika virus, chikungunya virus, and yellow fever virus have drawn attention toward other cocirculating arboviruses in South America. Oropouche virus (OROV) is a poorly studied pathogen responsible for over a dozen outbreaks since the early 1960s and represents a public health burden to countries such as Brazil, Panama, and Peru. OROV is likely underreported since its symptomatology can be easily confounded with other febrile illnesses (e.g., dengue fever and leptospirosis) and point-of-care testing for the virus is still uncommon. With limited data, there is a need to optimize the information currently available. Analysis of OROV genomes can help us understand how the virus circulates in nature and can reveal the evolutionary forces that shape the genetic diversity of the virus, which has implications for molecular diagnostics and the design of potential vaccines.

Molecular survey of flaviviruses and orthobunyaviruses in Amblyomma spp. ticks collected in Minas Gerais, Brazil / Investigação molecular de flavivírus e orthobunyaviruses em carrapatos do gênero Amblyomma spp. coletados em Minas Gerais, Brasil

Abstract Due to anthropic environmental changes, vector-borne diseases are emerging worldwide. Ticks are known vectors of several pathogens of concern among humans and animals. In recent decades, several examples of tick-borne emerging viral diseases have been reported (Crimean Congo hemorrhagic fever virus, Powassan virus, encephalitis virus, heartland virus, severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome virus). Unfortunately, few studies addressing the presence of viruses in wild ticks have been carried out in South America. With the aim of detecting flaviviruses and orthobunyaviruses in ticks, we carried out molecular detection in wild ticks collected in the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil. No Flavivirus-positive ticks were detected; however, we detected activity of Orthobunyavirus in 8 Amblyomma tick specimens. One of those individuals was positive for Bunyamwera orthobunyavirus, which represents the first report of this virus among ticks in South America. Further studies related to the ecology of zoonotic diseases are needed to increase knowledge of this topic, including attempts at viral isolation, full genome sequencing and biological characterization. In this way, we will obtain a better picture of the real risk of ticks as a vector for viral diseases for humans and animals on our continent, where no tick-borne viral disease is known to occur.

Resumo Alterações ambientais causadas pelo homem têm levado à emergência de doenças transmitidas por vetores no mundo. Carrapatos são vetores conhecidos de vários patógenos de importância médica e veterinária, tendo sido reportado nas últimas décadas um grande número de enfermidades virais emergentes transmitidas por eles (vírus da Febre Hemorrágica da Crimeia-Congo, vírus Powassan, vírus da Encefalite, vírus Heartland e vírus da Síndrome da Febre Trombocitopênica Severa). Infelizmente, poucos estudos envolvendo a pesquisa de vírus em carrapatos foram conduzidos na América do Sul até o momento, e nas últimas décadas um elevado número de enfermidades virais emergentes transmitidas por estes artrópodes foi relatado. Com o objetivo de investigar a presença de flavivírus e orthobunyavírus em carrapatos, foi conduzida uma análise molecular em espécimes coletados no estado de Minas Gerais, Brasil. Em nenhum carrapato foi detectada a presença de Flavivirus, no entanto, em 8 espécimes do gênero Amblyomma, foi detectada a presença de Orthobunyavirus, dos quais um espécime foi positivo para Bunyamwera orthobunyavirus. Novos estudos relacionados à ecologia de doenças zoonóticas, incluindo tentativas de isolamento viral, sequenciamento completo do genoma e caracterização biológica, são necessários. Desta forma, será possível ter uma base sobre os riscos da transmissão de vírus patogênicos por carrapatos em nosso continente, uma vez que até agora isso é desconhecido.

Molecular survey of flaviviruses and orthobunyaviruses in Amblyomma spp. ticks collected in Minas Gerais, Brazil.

Due to anthropic environmental changes, vector-borne diseases are emerging worldwide. Ticks are known vectors of several pathogens of concern among humans and animals. In recent decades, several examples of tick-borne emerging viral diseases have been reported (Crimean Congo hemorrhagic fever virus, Powassan virus, encephalitis virus, heartland virus, severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome virus). Unfortunately, few studies addressing the presence of viruses in wild ticks have been carried out in South America. With the aim of detecting flaviviruses and orthobunyaviruses in ticks, we carried out molecular detection in wild ticks collected in the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil. No Flavivirus-positive ticks were detected; however, we detected activity of Orthobunyavirus in 8 Amblyomma tick specimens. One of those individuals was positive for Bunyamwera orthobunyavirus, which represents the first report of this virus among ticks in South America. Further studies related to the ecology of zoonotic diseases are needed to increase knowledge of this topic, including attempts at viral isolation, full genome sequencing and biological characterization. In this way, we will obtain a better picture of the real risk of ticks as a vector for viral diseases for humans and animals on our continent, where no tick-borne viral disease is known to occur.

Characterization of a peribunyavirus isolated from largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides).

We report the complete genome sequencing of the first fish peribunyavirus determined using a next-generation sequencing approach. The virus was isolated during a routine health assessment of wild largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) in Wisconsin in April of 2009. Further research is needed to determine the epidemiology and pathogenicity of the largemouth bass bunyavirus.

Detection of Two Highly Diverse Peribunyaviruses in Mosquitoes from Palenque, Mexico.

The Peribunyaviridae family contains the genera Orthobunyavirus, Herbevirus, Pacuvirus, and Shangavirus. Orthobunyaviruses and pacuviruses are mainly transmitted by blood-feeding insects and infect a variety of vertebrates whereas herbeviruses and shangaviruses have a host range restricted to insects. Here, we tested mosquitoes from a tropical rainforest in Mexico for infections with peribunyaviruses. We identified and characterized two previously unknown viruses, designated Baakal virus (BKAV) and Lakamha virus (LAKV). Sequencing and de novo assembly of the entire BKAV and LAKV genomes revealed that BKAV is an orthobunyavirus and LAKV is likely to belong to a new genus. LAKV was almost equidistant to the established peribunyavirus genera and branched as a deep rooting solitary lineage basal to herbeviruses. Virus isolation attempts of LAKV failed. BKAV is most closely related to the bird-associated orthobunyaviruses Koongol virus and Gamboa virus. BKAV was successfully isolated in mosquito cells but did not replicate in common mammalian cells from various species and organs. Also cells derived from chicken were not susceptible. Interestingly, BKAV can infect cells derived from a duck species that is endemic in the region where the BKAV-positive mosquito was collected. These results suggest a narrow host specificity and maintenance in a mosquito-bird transmission cycle.

Isolation, genetic analysis of the first Akabane virus from goat in China.

Akabane virus (AKAV) is an important insect-borne virus belonging to the genus Orthobunyavirus, the Peribunyaviridae family. An AKAV defined as GXDH 01 here, was isolated for the first time from blood from a sentinel goat in China in 2016, and its full-length open reading frames (ORFs) were sequenced in this study. Sequence analysis suggested that the isolate GXDH 01 probably had undergone a reassortment incident and acquired L segments from other strain originating from an attenuated vaccine, such as OBE-1. This study aims to provide more understanding as to the origin and epidemiology of AKAV in China.

Development and analytical validation of a group-specific RT-qPCR assay for the detection of the Simbu serogroup orthobunyaviruses.

The Simbu serogroup within the genus Orthobunyavirus belongs to the family Peribunyaviridae and comprises 32 recognised three-segmented negative-sense single-stranded RNA viruses, with a cosmopolitan distribution. This group of arthropod-borne viruses includes important pathogens of humans and domestic animals e.g. Oropouche orthobunyavirus and Schmallenberg virus. Sensitive and specific diagnostic tools are required for recognition and control of outbreaks. A novel TaqMan® RT-qPCR assay was developed, optimised and analytically validated for the broad detection of the Simbu serogroup orthobunyaviruses. A region in the S segment, which encodes the nucleocapsid protein, was used to design a group primer set and a pair of differently labelled TaqMan® minor groove binder probes to distinguish phylogenetic clade A and B of the serogroup. Efficiencies determined for seven members of the group were 99% for Akabane orthobunyavirus (AKAV), 96% for Simbu orthobunyavirus (SIMV), 96% for Shuni orthobunyavirus (SHUV), 97% for Sathuperi orthobunyavirus (SATV), 84% for Shamonda orthobunyavirus (SHAV), 93% for Ingwavuma virus (INGV, now classified as Manzanilla orthobunyavirus) and 110% for Sabo virus (SABOV, now classified as AKAV). The 95% limit of detection (TCID50/reaction) was 10-3.61 for AKAV, 10-2.38 for SIMV, 10-3.42 for SHUV, 10-3.32 for SATV, 10-1.67 for SHAV, 100.39 for INGV and 10-2.70 for SABOV.

Schmallenberg virus in Azerbaijan 2012-2018.

Schmallenberg virus is an orthobunyavirus that infects ruminants and can cause transient fever, diarrhea, reduced milk production, congenital malformations, and abortions. Following the first suspected cases in Azerbaijan, a surveillance study was launched to determine and follow the situation. Serum samples and fetal tissue were collected starting October 2012 and tested via ELISA and qPCR. A first wave of Schmallenberg virus infections was detected in 2012/2013 in, and was largely limited to, the southern part of the country. In the second and larger wave in 2013/2014, cases were found throughout most of the country. Since then, no major outbreaks have been recorded.

Novel Orthobunyavirus Causing Severe Kidney Disease in Broiler Chickens, Malaysia, 2014-2017.

During 2014-2017, we isolated a novel orthobunyavirus from broiler chickens with severe kidney lesions in the state of Kedah, Malaysia; we named the virus Kedah fatal kidney syndrome virus (KFKSV). Affected chickens became listless and diarrheic before dying suddenly. Necropsies detected pale and swollen kidneys with signs of gout, enlarged and fragile livers, and pale hearts. Experimental infection of broiler chickens with KFKSV reproduced the disease and pathologic conditions observed in the field, fulfilling the Koch's postulates. Gene sequencing indicated high nucleotide identities between KFKSV isolates (99%) and moderate nucleotide identities with the orthobunyavirus Umbre virus in the large (78%), medium (77%), and small (86%) genomic segments. KFKSV may be pathogenic for other host species, including humans.

Metagenomic Analysis Reveals Three Novel and Prevalent Mosquito Viruses from a Single Pool of Aedes vexans nipponii Collected in the Republic of Korea.

Arboviruses continue to be a significant global health concern. The unbiased metagenomic analyses of mosquito-borne and mosquito-specific viruses are useful to understand viral diversity and for the surveillance of pathogens of medical and veterinary importance. Metagenomic analysis was conducted on 6368 mosquitoes (736 pools), covering 16 species from 18 locations throughout the Republic of Korea (ROK) in 2016. In this report, we describe three viruses detected in a single pool of Aedes vexans nipponii collected at Yongsan U.S. Army Garrison, located in a densely populated district of Seoul, the ROK. The three novel viruses, designated as Yongsan bunyavirus 1 (YBV1), Yongsan picorna-like virus 3 (YPLV3) and Yongsan sobemo-like virus 1 (YSLV1), share sequence and structural characteristics with members belonging to the family Bunyaviridae, order Picornavirales, and family Solemoviridae, with shared RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) amino acid identities of 40%, 42% and 86%, respectively. The real-time reverse transcription and polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) of 3493 Aedes vexans nipponii (257 pools) showed a high prevalence of YBV1 and YSLV1 viruses, which were present in 65% and 62% of tested pools, respectively. This study highlighted the utility of a metagenomic sequencing approach for arbovirus discovery and for a better understanding of the virome of potential medically relevant vectors.

Novel Orthobunyavirus Identified in the Cerebrospinal Fluid of a Ugandan Child With Severe Encephalopathy.

A Ugandan child with an unexplained encephalitis was investigated using viral metagenomics. Several sequences from all segments of a novel orthobunyavirus were found. The S-segment, used for typing, showed 41% amino acid diversity to its closest relative. The virus was named Ntwetwe virus, after the hometown of the patient.