Comprehensive Quality Evaluation of American Ginseng for Different Parts and Abnormal Trait Based on the Major Ginsenoside Contents and Morphological Characteristics.

The demand for American ginseng, a famous traditional medicine and high-grade healthy food, has increased dramatically over recent years. However, only the main root is popular among consumers, whereas other parts of American ginseng are rarely available in the market. In this study, the contents of 5 major ginsenosides (Re, Rc, Rg1, Rd, and Rb1) were determined through high-performance liquid chromatography. Our study showed that all these 5 major ginsenosides are found in different parts of American ginseng plants, and the total content in different parts varied significantly in the following order: fibrous root > flower > branch root > main root > leaf > stem. Interestingly, the total content in the fibrous root was approximately 2.24 times higher than that in the main root. Further research indicated that the ginsenoside content in American ginseng with abnormal characteristics (physical deformity caused by disease and discolouration) is similar to that in the normal plant. Interestingly, a positive correlation was observed between the main root diameter and total ginsenoside content, whereas a negative correlation was observed between the main root length and total ginsenoside content. Our comprehensive study revealed that all parts of American ginseng, including the main root with abnormal characteristics, possess medicinal or economic value. Therefore, our results provide feasible evidence to further explore the potential application of American ginseng.

[Comparative study of wild and cultivated product of Panax japonicus from the west of Hubei province].

OBJECTIVE: To compare the difference of macroscopic and microscopic characteristics and total saponin content between wild and cultivated product of Panax japonicus from the west of Hubei province. METHODS: Cleared the difference of wild and cultivated product of Panax japonicus by macroscopic and microscopic characteristics of powder and transversection and determined the content of total sponin by the vanillin-perchloric acid. RESULTS: Compared with cultivated product, in medicinal properties, the wild one was darker, with shorter diameter and rougher surface. In microscopic features, wild product had pigment, while the cultivated one had none; Moreover, the calcium oxalate crystal were more and the xylem bigger in wild product. As for total saponins, cultivated product had more total ginsenosides than the wild one. CONCLUSION: There are certain differences in macroscopic and microscopic characteristics and total ginsenosides between wild and cultivated product of Panax japonicus.

[Growth and development of fruit and seed of Panax quinquefolium].

OBJECTIVE: To understand the embryo after-ripening phenomenon of Panax quinquefolium, the growth and development process of fruit and seed was investigated in this study. METHOD: The growth and development characteristics of fruit and seed were obtained by field observation, the morphological changes were measured with a vernier caliper, paraffin section was used as well. RESULT AND CONCLUSION: The plant reached the most flowering numbers in 5-8 d after initial blooming time and the lag phase of embryo occurred in about 70 d. The size, fresh and dry weight of fruit and seed were all reached maximum in fruit maturation period. As the result showed, the development of seed was stopped at torpedo form of embryos, this conclusion can be applied to explore the morphological after-ripening mechanism of P. quinquefolium seed.

[Textual study of ginseng in Wupu Bencao].

In the study of materia medica literature, we found of ginseng in Wupu Bencao that "Leaf is a little sharp, root is black and stem is pilous" had been ignored by its subsequent literatures. In this study, the variety of ginseng in Wupu Bencao was researched. We believed the remaining records of ginseng in Wupu Bencao referred to Oplopanax elatus instead of Panax ginseng. The origin of this species was in Handan during the period of three-kingdom dynasty, but distributed in the area of Changbai mountain nowadays.

Mass spectrometric imaging of ginsenosides localization in Panax ginseng root.

We performed mass spectrometric imaging (MSI) to localize ginsenosides (Rb(1), Rb(2) or Rc, and Rf) in cross-sections of the Panax ginseng root at a resolution of 100 microm using matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry (MALDI-MS). Tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) of alkali metal-adducted ginsenoside ions revealed structural information of the corresponding saccharides and aglycone. MALDI-MSI confirmed that ginsenosides were located more in the cortex and the periderm than that in the medulla of a lateral root. In addition, it revealed that localization of ginsenosides in a root tip (diameter, 2.7 mm) is higher than that in the center of the root (diameter, 7.3 mm). A quantitative difference was detected between localizations of protopanaxadiol-type ginsenoside (Rb(1), Rb(2), or Rc) and protopanaxatriol-type ginsenoside (Rf) in the root. This imaging approach is a promising technique for rapid evaluation and identification of medicinal saponins in plant tissues.

Hairy root cultures for secondary metabolites production.

Hairy roots (HRs) are differentiated cultures of transformed roots generated by the infection of wounded higher plants with Agrobacterium rhizogenes. This pathogen causes the HR disease leading to the neoplastic growth of roots that are characterized by high growth rate in hormone free media and genetic stability. HRs produce the same phytochemicals pattern of the corresponding wild type organ. High stability and productivity features allow the exploitation of HRs as valuable biotechnological tool for the production of plant secondary metabolites. In addition, several elicitation methods can be used to further enhance their accumulation in both small and large scale production. However, in the latter case, cultivation in bioreactors should be still optimized. HRs can be also utilised as biological farm for the production of recombinant proteins, hence holding additional potential for industrial use. HR technology has been strongly improved by increased knowledge of molecular mechanisms underlying their development. The present review summarizes updated aspects of the hairy root induction, genetics and metabolite production.

Plant cell cultures: bioreactors for industrial production.

The recent biotechnology boom has triggered increased interest in plant cell cultures, since a number of firms and academic institutions investigated intensively to rise the production of very promising bioactive compounds. In alternative to wild collection or plant cultivation, the production of useful and valuable secondary metabolites in large bioreactors is an attractive proposal; it should contribute significantly to future attempts to preserve global biodiversity and alleviate associated ecological problems. The advantages of such processes include the controlled production according to demand and a reduced man work requirement. Plant cells have been grown in different shape bioreactors, however, there are a variety of problems to be solved before this technology can be adopted on a wide scale for the production of useful plant secondary metabolites. There are different factors affecting the culture growth and secondary metabolite production in bioreactors: the gaseous atmosphere, oxygen supply and CO2 exchange, pH, minerals, carbohydrates, growth regulators, the liquid medium rheology and cell density. Moreover agitation systems and sterilization conditions may negatively influence the whole process. Many types ofbioreactors have been successfully used for cultivating transformed root cultures, depending on both different aeration system and nutrient supply. Several examples of medicinal and aromatic plant cultures were here summarized for the scale up cultivation in bioreactors.

[Age stages in the ontogeny of cultivated Panax ginseng C.A. Mey].

The ontogeny of perennial polycarpic herb Panax ginseng C. A. Mey. (Araliaceae) under plantation conditions was described. Three periods (latent, pregenerative, and generative) and eight age stages have been identified in the ontogeny of cultivated P. ginseng. The generative period of this species is the longest ontogenetic period, which determines the timing of its cultivation in plantations.

[Comparative analysis of ginsenosides from red ginseng].

OBJECTIVE: To determine ginsenoside Rg1, Re, Rb1, Rc, Rb2, Rd from main root and root hair of red ginseng of different specifications. METHOD: Ultrasonical extraction and reversed phase high performance liquid chromatography were applied. RESULT: The total contents of six ginsenosides from main root 15 roots (percent 500 g), 20 roots, 30 roots and root hair are 1.21%, 1.46%, 1.54% and 8.16%, respectively. CONCLUSION: The results showed that the bigger the volume of ginseng root, the less the content of ginsenoside.

Ginseng (Panax ginseng).

Genetic transformation is an attractive way to improve Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer by introducing new genetic materials and altering metabolic pathways that regulating the production of secondary compounds. In P. ginseng, production of transgenic plants via Agrobacterium tumefaciens is performed via somatic embryogenesis using cotyledon or embryogenic callus as explants. This chapter introduces the protocol of A. tumefaciens mediated-genetic transformation in P. ginseng.

The Agrobacterium rhizogenes rolC-gene-induced somatic embryogenesis and shoot organogenesis in Panax ginseng transformed calluses.

Expression of the Agrobacterium rhizogenes rolC gene in Panax ginseng callus cells results in formation of tumors that are capable to form roots. The selection of non-root forming tumor clusters yielded the embryogenic 2c3 callus line, which formed somatic embryos and shoots independently of external growth factors. Although the 2c3 somatic embryos developed through a typical embryogenesis process, they terminated prematurely and repeatedly formed adventitious shoot meristems and embryo-like structures. A part of the shoots and somatic embryos formed enlarged and fasciated meristems. This is the first indication of the rolC gene embryogenic effect and, to our knowledge, the first indication that a single gene of non-plant origin can induce somatic embryogenesis in plants.

[Analysis on the geologic background and physicochemical properties of soil for the cultivation of Panax notoginseng in Yunnan province].

OBJECTIVE: To study the relationship between the geo-authentic and geologic background system (GBS) and physicochemical properties of soil for the cultivation of Panax notoginseng. METHOD: The physicochemical properties of soil were analyzed, the geologic background system between producing areas of Yunnan and Guanxi of P. notogiseng was compared. RESULT: The distribution of P. notoginseng was restricted by GBS, The yellow-red soil of fragmentary rock mixed with carbonate seems to be most suitable for the growth. CONCLUSION: The most suitable soil for growing P. notoginseng is the neutral or weakly acidic soil with loam clay, particularly that with low base saturation percentage.

[Correlation and path analysis of agronomic characters of Panax notoginseng].

OBJECTIVE: To select the main directions and the objects in breeding the high yield of Panax notoginseng by the correlation and path analysis of main agronomic character of P. notoginseng. METHOD: Samples in fifty-two districts of Yunnan and Guangxi were collected. The height of plant, the diameter of stem, the number, length, width, size of leaf and the weight of each root of those samples were measured. RESULT: The greatest contribution to the weight of each root is the size of leaf. CONCLUSION: The size of leaf should be key to the high yield of cultribution of P. notoginseng and the size of leaf especially the width of leaf should be selected in breeding. At the same time, the height of plant and the diameter of stem should be considered.

[Study on variation and interrelations of characteristics at ginseng germplasms].

The variation and interrelations of some characteristics of Panax ginseng germplasms(lines), which were five selfmating generations of some single plants were studied. Methods of multivariate analysis, such as correlation, regression, or clustering, and coefficient of variation were used. The results were of benefit to the breeding and standardized planting of Panax ginseng.

[Herbal research of uigurian drug Mandragora officinarum].

Mandragora officinarum L. is one of the traditional drug recorded in Uigurian document, but Uigurian doctors mistake Panax ginseng C. A. Mey. for Mandragora officinarum L. By herbal study and research of systematic botany for Uigurian drug Mandragora officinarum L., this paper considers that is doesn't substitute Panax ginseng C. A. Mey. for Mandragora officinarum L.

[Pharmacognostical studies on the medicinal parts of Panax quinquefolius L].

The pharmacognostical identification of Panax quinquefolius was carried out. The microscopic characteristics of its root, stem, leaves, flowers and fruit were described and illustrated.

[Observation on the annual and seasonal changes of anatomic characteristics of the main root of Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer].

Annual dynamic of the main root of Panax ginseng shows that the cross-section of various tissues increases gradually with age, but the ratio of phloemxylem in cross-section decreases. Seasonal dynamic shows that cells of phellogen and cambium divide actively in June-July and gets retarded in August. Ecological conditions can influence annual and seasonal dynamics of the structure of the main root.

[Quality evaluation of Panax quinquefolium L. introduced and cultured in China].

An investigation was made on the shape, properties, tissue features, TLC identification and panaxoside content of the Panax quinquefolium introduced and cultured in China. The results showed that its quality was basically similar to that of the imported Panax quinquefolium.

[Evaluation of the quality of the crude drug of Panax quinquefolium linn. cultivated in Heilongjiang Province].

A comparison has been made between the Panax quinquefolium introduced and cultivated in Heilongjiang province and the wild one imported from the U.S. in terms of properties, structures and principal chemical constituents. The result shows that the two kinds are very similar or close to each other, though in properties and structures they are slightly different, and in the contents of total saponins, ginsenosides Rb 1 and Re, the cultivated one is lower.