Orf, a Human Parapoxvirus Infection.

Despite being common worldwide, parapoxvirus infections are regarded as neglected zoonoses because their incidence is either unknown or grossly overestimated. In ruminants all throughout the world, parapoxvirus produces oral lesions and infectious pustular dermatitis. The pathogen is typically spread directly via items contaminated with parapoxvirus and indirectly via a near contact with dermatological lesions that contain the virus on affected animals. Animals infected with the parapoxvirus typically exhibit no clinical symptoms, and the mode of parapoxvirus transmission is occasionally unclear. For accurate etiological diagnosis and appropriate therapy of patients affected by zoonotic infections, the significance of adopting a "One Health" approach and cross-sector collaboration between human and veterinary medicine should be emphasized. The causative pathogen of ecthyma contagiosum in general people is the orf virus, which mostly infects various animals, either pets or wildlife species. The illness primarily affects minute wild ruminants, sheep, cattle, deer, and goats, and it can spread to people through contact with infected animals or contaminated meats anywhere in the world. Taxonomically speaking, the virus belongs to the parapoxvirus genus. Thus pathogen can be detected from crusts for a very long period (several months to several years), and the virus is found to be resistant to inactivation with a hot or dry atmosphere. In immunocompetent individuals, the lesions often go away on their own with a period as long 2 months. Nevertheless, it necessitates the applying of diverse strategies, such as antiviral, immunological modulator, or modest surgical excisions in immunosuppressed patients. The interaction of the virus with various host populations aids in the development of a defense mechanism against the immune system. The parapoxvirus illness in humans is covered in this chapter. The orf illness, a significant known human parapoxvirus infection, is given specific attention.

Retrospective study of poxviruses diagnosed in cattle from Goiás State, Brazil (2010-2018) / Estudo retrospectivo de poxviroses diagnosticadas em bovinos no estado de Goiás (2010-2018)

A retrospective study of poxvirus infections diagnosed in cattle from Goiás state (GO), Brazil, from 2010 to 2018, was performed. All cases have been investigated by the GO Official Veterinary Service (Agrodefesa), from which technical forms and protocols of veterinary diagnosis laboratories were reviewed. In most cases, samples of oral or cutaneous tissues and/or swabs were submitted for virological diagnosis by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and/or virus isolation. Thirty seven outbreaks/cases of vesicular disease were notified in cattle of 25 counties; in 33 cases the animals presented lesions clinically compatible with poxviruses. The etiology of 25 out of 33 outbreaks/cases was confirmed as poxviruses by PCR and/or viral isolation: 13 as bovine vaccinia virus (VACV), six as pseudocowpox virus (PCPV), five as bovine papular stomatitis virus (BPSV) and one coinfection (VACV and an Orf virus-like parapoxvirus). The laboratory confirmed that cases occurred mainly in dairy cattle (19/25) and during the dry season (22/25). In adult cattle, gross changes were observed mainly in the teats and udder and included vesicles, ulcers, crusts, papules and scars and varied of type, severity and affected region, depending on the poxvirus species. In calves, the main lesions were ulcers in the mouth and muzzle. Zoonotic lesions compatible with poxvirus infections were observed for all diagnosed poxviruses, affecting especially the hands of milkers and other farm workers. Our data demonstrate the sanitary and economic relevance of these diseases and the wide circulation of different poxviruses in cattle from GO.

Foi realizado um estudo retrospectivo das infecções por poxvírus diagnosticadas em bovinos do estado de Goiás (GO), entre 2010 e 2018. Todos os casos foram investigados pela Agência Goiana de Defesa Agropecuária (Agrodefesa). Foram revisados formulários técnicos e protocolos de laboratórios de diagnóstico veterinário. Na maioria dos casos, amostras de tecidos orais ou cutâneos e/ou swabs foram encaminhadas para diagnóstico virológico. Foram notificados 37 surtos/casos de doença vesicular em bovinos em 25 municípios; em 33 casos os animais apresentavam lesões clinicamente compatíveis com poxvírus. A etiologia de 25 de 33 surtos/casos foi confirmada como poxvírus por PCR e/ou isolamento viral: 13 como vírus vaccínia (VACV), seis como vírus pseudocowpox (PCPV), cinco como vírus da estomatite papular bovina (BPSV) e um caso de coinfecção (VACV e um parapoxvírus semelhante ao Orf vírus). Os casos confirmados laboratorialmente ocorreram principalmente em bovinos leiteiros (19/25) e durante a estação seca (22/25). Em bovinos adultos, alterações macroscópicas foram observadas principalmente nas tetas e úbere e incluíram vesículas, úlceras, crostas, pápulas e cicatrizes e variaram quanto ao tipo, gravidade e região afetada, dependendo da espécie do poxvírus. Em bezerros, as principais lesões foram úlceras na boca e focinho. Lesões zoonóticas compatíveis com infecção por poxvírus foram observadas em todas as poxviroses diagnosticadas, afetando principalmente as mãos dos ordenhadores e outros trabalhadores rurais. Nossos dados demonstram a relevância sanitária e econômica dessas doenças e a ampla circulação de diferentes poxvírus em bovinos de GO.

Retrospective study of poxviruses diagnosed in cattle from Goiás State, Brazil (2010-2018) / Estudo retrospectivo de poxviroses diagnosticadas em bovinos no estado de Goiás (2010-2018)

A retrospective study of poxvirus infections diagnosed in cattle from Goiás state (GO), Brazil, from 2010 to 2018, was performed. All cases have been investigated by the GO Official Veterinary Service (Agrodefesa), from which technical forms and protocols of veterinary diagnosis laboratories were reviewed. In most cases, samples of oral or cutaneous tissues and/or swabs were submitted for virological diagnosis by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and/or virus isolation. Thirty seven outbreaks/cases of vesicular disease were notified in cattle of 25 counties; in 33 cases the animals presented lesions clinically compatible with poxviruses. The etiology of 25 out of 33 outbreaks/cases was confirmed as poxviruses by PCR and/or viral isolation: 13 as bovine vaccinia virus (VACV), six as pseudocowpox virus (PCPV), five as bovine papular stomatitis virus (BPSV) and one coinfection (VACV and an Orf virus-like parapoxvirus). The laboratory confirmed that cases occurred mainly in dairy cattle (19/25) and during the dry season (22/25). In adult cattle, gross changes were observed mainly in the teats and udder and included vesicles, ulcers, crusts, papules and scars and varied of type, severity and affected region, depending on the poxvirus species. In calves, the main lesions were ulcers in the mouth and muzzle. Zoonotic lesions compatible with poxvirus infections were observed for all diagnosed poxviruses, affecting especially the hands of milkers and other farm workers. Our data demonstrate the sanitary and economic relevance of these diseases and the wide circulation of different poxviruses in cattle from GO.(AU)

Foi realizado um estudo retrospectivo das infecções por poxvírus diagnosticadas em bovinos do estado de Goiás (GO), entre 2010 e 2018. Todos os casos foram investigados pela Agência Goiana de Defesa Agropecuária (Agrodefesa). Foram revisados formulários técnicos e protocolos de laboratórios de diagnóstico veterinário. Na maioria dos casos, amostras de tecidos orais ou cutâneos e/ou swabs foram encaminhadas para diagnóstico virológico. Foram notificados 37 surtos/casos de doença vesicular em bovinos em 25 municípios; em 33 casos os animais apresentavam lesões clinicamente compatíveis com poxvírus. A etiologia de 25 de 33 surtos/casos foi confirmada como poxvírus por PCR e/ou isolamento viral: 13 como vírus vaccínia (VACV), seis como vírus pseudocowpox (PCPV), cinco como vírus da estomatite papular bovina (BPSV) e um caso de coinfecção (VACV e um parapoxvírus semelhante ao Orf vírus). Os casos confirmados laboratorialmente ocorreram principalmente em bovinos leiteiros (19/25) e durante a estação seca (22/25). Em bovinos adultos, alterações macroscópicas foram observadas principalmente nas tetas e úbere e incluíram vesículas, úlceras, crostas, pápulas e cicatrizes e variaram quanto ao tipo, gravidade e região afetada, dependendo da espécie do poxvírus. Em bezerros, as principais lesões foram úlceras na boca e focinho. Lesões zoonóticas compatíveis com infecção por poxvírus foram observadas em todas as poxviroses diagnosticadas, afetando principalmente as mãos dos ordenhadores e outros trabalhadores rurais. Nossos dados demonstram a relevância sanitária e econômica dessas doenças e a ampla circulação de diferentes poxvírus em bovinos de GO.(AU)

Bovine papular stomatitis virus and pseudocowpox virus coinfection in dairy calves in Japan.

Two cases of coinfection with bovine papular stomatitis virus (BPSV) and pseudocowpox virus (PCPV) in dairy calves in Tochigi Prefecture, Japan, are reported. Sequences of BPSV and PCPV were simultaneously detected in the same polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplicons, which were obtained from the DNA of two dairy calves using a pan-parapoxvirus primer set. PCR amplification using BPSV- and PCPV-specific primer sets were able to distinguish between the two viruses in coinfected clinical samples. Based on these data, further studies on the occurrence BPSV/PCPV coinfections in cattle in Japan are warranted.

Poxviruses diagnosed in cattle from Distrito Federal, Brazil (2015-2018).

A retrospective study of officially diagnosed poxvirus infections in cattle in Distrito Federal (DF), Brazil, between 2015 and 2018 was performed. All cases were investigated by the DF Official Veterinary Service. In the most cases, samples of oral, cutaneous (teats, udder) or foot lesions were submitted to molecular diagnosis by PCR. In approximately 70% of the cases, additional samples were also submitted for histopathology. Ninety-three out of 2,467 clinically examined cattle (from 385 farms) presented suggestive and/or compatible lesions with poxviruses. Fifty-two out of these 93 cases were confirmed as poxviruses: 27 vaccinia virus (VACV), 9 pseudocowpox virus (PCPV), 8 bovine papular stomatitis virus (BPSV), 5 coinfection by PCPV and BPSV and 3 unidentified parapoxvirus. The clinical cases were observed in farms with different exploration (beef, dairy or mixed) from 9 out of 30 administrative regions of DF. Gross findings consisted of papules, vesicles, ulcers, scabs and scars and varied of type, severity and affected tissue, according to the detected virus. A single human case was observed associated with a BPSV infection. Histologically, the lesions were very similar, independently of the detected poxvirus, and included mild to moderate, superficial, multifocal inflammatory infiltrate of lymphocytes, plasma cells, macrophages and/or neutrophils, with acanthosis and parakeratotic hyperkeratosis, usually associated with serous content, cellular debris and spongiosis. In the ulcerated lesions, there were focally extensive areas of necrosis with severe infiltrate of neutrophils in the adjacent connective tissue. Few to moderate amount of 4- to 8-µm eosinophilic inclusion bodies were observed in the cytoplasm of keratinocytes in 6 cases (2 of VACV, 2 of PCPV and 2 of PCPV/BPSV coinfection). Data of the current study demonstrate the wide circulation of different poxviruses in cattle from DF.

Nódulo eritematoso en un niño / Erythematous nodule in a child

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Coinfection of a lingual lesion with bovine papular stomatitis virus and bovine papillomavirus.

To date, there have been no reports of coinfection with bovine papular stomatitis virus (BPSV) and bovine papillomavirus (BPV) in the same lesion. In the present study, one lingual papilloma-like sample was collected at an abattoir from the tongue of a 31-month-old Japanese black cow. Coinfection with BPSV and BPV was confirmed by histopathology, immunohistochemistry, PCR and RT-PCR. The evidence for coinfection with BPSV and BPV in the same lesion and an association of BPV with lingual papillomatosis will contribute to future epidemiological studies of these two viruses.

Sequential detection of pseudocowpox virus and bovine papular stomatitis virus in a same calf in Japan.

We detected parapoxviruses from environmental samples and calves with and without intraoral clinical signs and conducted molecular and serological analyses. Pseudocowpox virus (PCPV) was detected from a calf showing anorexia, frothy salivation, and erosion in the mucosa of the lip and tongue. At the time that PCPV was detected, bovine papular stomatitis viruses (BPSVs) were detected in environmental samples as well as in calves without intraoral clinical signs. BPSV, but not PCPV, was detected in the same calf after 22 days. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that genetically different PCPV strains exist in Japan. This is the first report on the detection of PCPV and BPSV sequentially in the same calf and coexistence of PCPV and BPSV in the same farm in Japan.

Short communication: Parapoxvirus and Orthopoxvirus coinfection in milk of naturally infected cows.

Several studies have shown the occurrence of poxvirus infections associated with exanthematic lesions in cattle from many Brazilian states. Coinfection between viruses belonging to 2 genera, Orthopoxvirus (OPXV) and Parapoxvirus (PPV), was already identified from the lesions of affected cows and humans. The DNA and infectious viral particles of Vaccinia virus, an OPXV, have been detected in milk of naturally and experimentally infected cows. However, to date no reports have described the detection of Pseudocowpox virus, a PPV, in milk. Thus, we investigated the presence of PPV and OPXV in milk samples obtained from dairy cows from a Brazilian region with exanthematic disease outbreaks. From 2011 to 2014, 6 dairy farms with exanthematic disease outbreaks involving dairy cows, calves, and humans were visited. Twelve crusts of cows' teat lesions and 60 milk samples were collected. The crusts and milk samples were analyzed by PCR to detect OPXV or PPV DNA. According to the analyzed crusts, we detected PPV infection in 4 of the 6 visited farms, from which we investigated the PPV contamination in milk. From the 40 milk samples tested, PPV DNA was detected in 12 samples. Of these milk samples, 8 were positive for both PPV and OPXV. This is the first report of PPV DNA detection in milk samples from affected cows, indicating that the virus may be present in milk and potentially contaminating dairy products associated or not with OPXV. In addition to the lesions caused by direct contact, the presence of 2 or more poxvirus species in milk showed that the effect of zoonotic exanthematic diseases on public health and animal husbandry is relevant and cannot be overlooked.

Parapoxvirus Infections in the Country of Georgia: A Case Series.

Infections caused by viruses of the parapoxvirus (PPV) genus, including orf and pseudocowpox viruses, are frequently seen in both humans and animals in many regions of the world. These infections are often misdiagnosed or neglected because of the lack of clinician awareness, inadequate diagnostic capacity, and their relatively mild disease presentation, which may result in affected individuals not seeking medical attention. Although PPV infections should be routinely considered in patients with cutaneous lesions, especially in those who have occupational exposure to farm animals, they are often excluded from the differential diagnosis because they are not perceived as serious, resulting in underestimation of the burden of disease. Since 2014, significant enhancements to Georgia's epidemiologic and laboratory capacity have made PPV surveillance and detection possible. In this study, we present information on 27 confirmed cases of PPV infection reported to Georgia's national surveillance system from January 2016 through January 2017.

Nódulo indoloro localizado en la mano / Painless nodule on the hand

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Parapoxviral vulvovaginitis in Holstein cows.

A group of Holstein first-calved heifers developed small pustules and ulcers on the vulva and in the vagina during the first 1-4 wk postpartum. The lesions varied from small red pinpoint foci to pustules and ulcers, 3-5 mm diameter. Some ulcers coalesced to form large ulcerated areas up to 15 mm diameter. In some animals, these ulcers progressed to become deep ulceration of the vaginal and vulvar mucosa with >50% of the mucosa involved. Vaginal biopsies from 4 heifers and vaginal individual swabs from 8 heifers for a combined sampling of 9 heifers were taken for clinical assessment. Six of the 9 heifers had parapoxvirus based on histopathology and/or PCR. Histologic examination of the biopsies of the pustules identified ballooning degeneration of the epithelium with degenerate epithelium containing eosinophilic intracytoplasmic inclusions consistent with a parapoxvirus in 3 of 4 biopsies. Testing for bovine herpesvirus 1, 2, and 4, bovine viral diarrhea virus, bovine papular stomatitis virus, and orf virus remained negative.

Recovery of the first full-length genome sequence of a parapoxvirus directly from a clinical sample.

We recovered the first full-length poxvirus genome, including the terminal hairpin region, directly from complex clinical material using a combination of second generation short read and third generation nanopore sequencing technologies. The complete viral genome sequence was directly recovered from a skin lesion of a grey seal thereby preventing sequence changes due to in vitro passaging of the virus. Subsequent analysis of the proteins encoded by this virus identified genes specific for skin adaptation and pathogenesis of parapoxviruses. These data warrant the classification of seal parapoxvirus, tentatively designated SePPV, as a new species within the genus Parapoxvirus.

Paciente con nódulos supurativos en el dorso nasal / A patient with suppurative nodules on the nasal dorsum

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Development and validation of a highly sensitive real-time PCR assay for rapid detection of parapoxviruses.

Parapoxviruses (PaPVs) cause widespread infections in ruminants worldwide. All PaPVs are zoonotic and may infect humans after direct or indirect contact with infected animals. Herein we report the development and validation of a highly sensitive real-time PCR assay for rapid detection of PaPVs. The new assay (referred to as the RVSS assay) was specific for PaPVs only and had no cross-reactivity against other pox viruses. Using a recombinant plasmid as positive control, the analytical sensitivity of the assay was determined to be 16 genome copies of PaPV per assay. The amplification efficiency estimate (91-99%), the intra- and interassay variability estimate (standard deviation [SD]: 0.28-1.06 and 0.01-0.14, respectively), and the operator variability estimate (SD: 0.78 between laboratories and 0.28 between operators within a laboratory) were within the acceptable range. The diagnostic specificity was assessed on 100 specimens from healthy normal animals and all but 1 tested negative (99%). The diagnostic sensitivity (DSe) was assessed on 77 clinical specimens (skin/scab) from infected sheep, goats, and cattle, and all tested positive (100%). The assay was multiplexed with beta-actin as an internal positive control, and the multiplex assay exhibited the same DSe as the singleplex assay. Further characterization of the PaPV specimens by species-specific real-time PCR and nucleotide sequencing of the PCR products following conventional PCR showed the presence of Orf virus not only in sheep and goats but also in 1 bovid. The validated RVSS assay demonstrated high specificity, sensitivity, reproducibility, and ruggedness, which are critical for laboratory detection of PaPVs.

A multiplex PCR for viruses associated with exanthematic and vesicular disease in cattle.

Exanthematic and papulo-vesicular lesions in the udder and teats of milking cows are fairly common in some Brazilian dairies, especially those with poor sanitary conditions and hand milking. The orthopoxvirus Vaccinia virus (VACV) and the parapoxviruses Pseudocowpox virus (PCPV) and Bovine popular stomatitis virus (BPSV) have been frequently associated with such conditions. Elsewhere, Bovine herpesvirus 2 (BoHV-2) has also been associated with similar clinical signs. Thus, we herein describe a conventional multiplex PCR designed to detect the genome of these viruses in clinical samples while differentiating among them by amplicon size. For this, primer sets targeting the orthopoxvirus vascular growth factor (amplicon size 292bp), PCPV (374bp) and BSPV (607bp) B2L genes, and the BoHV-2 DNA polymerase gene (138bp) were selected. The chosen primers anneal within the same temperature range and do not interfere with each other during the PCR amplification. PCR conditions were initially standardized for each agent in individual PCR reactions firstly using the target virus as positive control followed by using a mixture of all four virues. Lastly, a multiplex PCR containing the four sets of primers was set up to amplify all four targeted viruses in one reaction. The multiplex PCR was able to detect DNA extracted from cell culture supernatants containing 20 TCID50 of BoHV-2 and 50 TCID50 of VACV. Further, the test could detect the viral genomes in 1:10, 1:50 and 1:1000 dilutions of total DNA extracted from clinical specimens (e.g. scabs, crusts) of natural cases (PCPV, VACV and BPSV) and 1:10 dilutions of DNA extracted from scabs collected from BoHV-2 experimentally infected cattle. A possible amplification of other orthopoxviruses, predicted by in silico analysis, was considered to not represent an important pitfall since these are exotic in Brazil, very rare, or viruses not associated with cattle. For definitive agent identification amplicon sequencing needs to be conducted. Thus, this multiplex PCR seems suitable for initial detection and identification of the agents involved in exanthematic and vesicular disease, providing a sensitive and specific diagnosis for such conditions in dairy cows.

A loop-mediated isothermal amplification assay for rapid and sensitive detection of bovine papular stomatitis virus.

Bovine papular stomatitis virus (BPSV) causes pustular cutaneous disease in cattle worldwide. This paper describes the development of a specific loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay to detect BPSV which did not cross-react with other parapoxviruses. To assess analytical sensitivity of this LAMP assay, DNA was extracted from serially diluted BPSV from which the infectious titer was determined by a novel assay based on calf kidney epithelial cells. The LAMP assay had equivalent analytical sensitivity to quantitative PCR, and could detect as few as 86 copies of viral DNA per reaction. These results suggest that the assay is a specific and sensitive technique to rapidly diagnose bovine papular stomatitis in domestic animals.

Detection of multiple viral infections in cattle and buffalo with suspected vesicular disease in Brazil.

Vesicular diseases are of high importance for livestock, primarily because of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), which is a high-morbidity disease that generates direct losses caused by low milk production, weight loss, and indirect losses because of the need for sanitary barriers. Other vesicular diseases are also of importance for livestock because of direct impacts or because their clinical signs may be confused with those of FMD. We report herein the detection of multiple infections in cattle with suspected vesicular disease in the Brazilian states of Amazonas (AM), Mato Grosso (MT), and Roraima. Thirty-seven epithelial samples from cattle and 1 sample from a buffalo were sent to the laboratory for testing for FMDV and similar disease agents. All samples from MT were positive for parapoxvirus (Pseudocowpox virus and Bovine papular stomatitis virus). In addition, 3 samples were positive for Bluetongue virus, and 5 samples were positive for Bovine herpesvirus 1 Among these samples, 1 was positive for all of these 3 agents. Only 2 samples from AM were negative for parapoxvirus. The molecular tests conducted in this study detected multiple infections, with a high prevalence of parapoxvirus.