SEM observation of early shell formation and expression of biomineralization-related genes during larval development in the pearl oyster Pinctada fucata.

Shell formation of Pinctada fucata in larval development stages plays a crucial role in their survival. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to observe the morphological changes during larval development. We found that the early shell forms soon after enlargement of the blastopore at the anterior end of the trochophore stage and the complete shell forms in the spats stage, required for metamorphosis of P. fucata. Based on our transcriptome data of trochophore, D-shaped, umbonal, eyespots and spats stages, including the whole process of shell formation, 93 differentially expressed biomineralization-related genes were identified, of which 25 genes were unique to P. fucata, 30 were identical to genes in pacific oyster, and the remaining genes were annotated to other species. Two-dimensional and three-dimensional principal components analysis (PCA) showed that different developmental stages were significantly different, with the early two stages exhibiting a larger difference compared with the next stages. The 93 genes were sorted into 20 trends with three trends being significantly enriched: an initial increase and then a decrease, a monotonic decrease, and a monotonic increase. Gene expression patterns changed with regulatory function during shell formation. Almost all the biomineralization-related genes were up-regulated in the D-shaped stage, but only five genes were up-regulated in that stage but down-regulated in the remaining stages. There were also 11 genes up-regulated in the last three stages, and a total of 24 genes showed high expression level during the last four stages. The 55 genes selected for shell incision experiment sorted into five trends and most genes presented differences in expression between 24 h and other time points. Considering all these results, there is a correlation with the morphological change and the expression of biomineralization-related genes during larval developmental stages, especially of differently expressed genes.

Nacre formation by epithelial cell cultures from mantle of the black-lip pearl oyster, Pinctada margaritifera.

Mantle tissue from the black-lip pearl oyster, Pinctada margaritifera, was cultured in vitro using sterilized seawater supplemented with 0.1% yeast extract as the culture medium. Granular and agranular epithelial cells, hyalinocytes, and fibroblast-like cells were observed in the initial stages of culture. Epithelial cells later formed pseudopodial cell networks containing clusters of granulated cells, which upon maturation released their colored granules. These granules induced formation of nacre crystal deposits on the bottom of the culture plate. Cultures comprised of only granulated epithelial cells were established through periodic sub-culturing of mantle cells and maintained for over 18 mo in a viable condition. Reverse transcriptase PCR of cultured cells demonstrated gene expression of the shell matrix protein, nacrein. To further evaluate the functional ability of cultured granulated epithelial cells, nuclear shell beads were incubated in culture medium containing these cells to induce nacre formation on the beads. Observation of the bead surface under a stereomicroscope at periodic intervals showed the gradual formation of blackish yellow colored nacre deposits. Examination of the bead surface by scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive X-ray analysis at periodic intervals revealed a distinct brick and mortar formation characteristic of nacre, comprised of aragonite platelets and matrix proteins. Calcium, carbon, and oxygen were the major elements in all stages examined. Our study shows that mantle epithelial cells in culture retain the ability to secrete nacre and can therefore form the basis for future studies on the biomineralization process and its application in development of sustainable pearl culture.

Functional Prioritization and Hydrogel Regulation Phenomena Created by a Combinatorial Pearl-Associated Two-Protein Biomineralization Model System.

In the nacre or aragonitic layer of an oyster pearl, there exists a 12-member proteome that regulates both the early stages of nucleation and nanoscale-to-mesoscale assembly of nacre tablets and calcitic crystals from mineral nanoparticle precursors. Several approaches to understanding protein-associated mechanisms of pearl nacre formation have been developed, yet we still lack insight into how protein ensembles or proteomes manage nucleation and crystal growth. To provide additional insights, we have created a proportionally defined combinatorial model consisting of two pearl nacre-associated proteins, PFMG1 and PFMG2 (shell oyster pearl nacre, Pinctada fucata) whose individual in vitro mineralization functionalities are distinct from one another. Using scanning electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, Ca(II) potentiometric titrations, and quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring quantitative analyses, we find that at 1:1 molar ratios, rPFMG2 and rPFMG1 co-aggregate in specific molecular ratios to form hybrid hydrogels that affect both the early and later stages of in vitro calcium carbonate nucleation. Within these hybrid hydrogels, rPFMG2 plays a role in defining protein co-aggregation and hydrogel dimension, whereas rPFMG1 defines participation in nonclassical nucleation processes; both proteins exhibit synergy with regard to surface and subsurface modifications to existing crystals. The interactions between both proteins are enhanced by Ca(II) ions and may involve Ca(II)-induced conformational events within the EF-hand rPFMG1 protein, as well as putative interactions between the EF-hand domain of rPFMG1 and the calponin-like domain of rPFMG2. Thus, the pearl-associated PFMG1 and PFMG2 proteins interact and exhibit mineralization functionalities in specific ways, which may be relevant for pearl formation.

Crystal defects induced by chitin and chitinolytic enzymes in the prismatic layer of Pinctada fucata.

Biomineralization, in which organisms create biogenic hard tissues, with hardness or flexibility enhanced by organic-inorganic interaction is an interesting and attractive focus for application of biomimetic functional materials. Calcites in the prismatic layer of Pinctada fucata are tougher than abiotic calcites due to small crystal defects. However, the molecular mechanism of the defect formation remains unclear. Here, chitin and two chitinolytic enzymes, chitinase and chitobiase, were identified as organic matrices related to for the formation of small crystal defects in the prismatic layer. Experiments with a chitinase inhibitor in vivo showed chitinase is necessary to form the prismatic layer. Analysis of calcite crystals, which were synthesized in a chitin hydrogel treated with chitinolytic enzymes, by electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction showed that crystal defects became larger as chitin was more degraded. These results suggest that interactions between chitin and calcium carbonate increase as chitin is thinner.

Synergistic Biomineralization Phenomena Created by a Combinatorial Nacre Protein Model System.

In the nacre or aragonite layer of the mollusk shell, proteomes that regulate both the early stages of nucleation and nano-to-mesoscale assembly of nacre tablets from mineral nanoparticle precursors exist. Several approaches have been developed to understand protein-associated mechanisms of nacre formation, yet we still lack insight into how protein ensembles or proteomes manage nucleation and crystal growth. To provide additional insights, we have created a proportionally defined combinatorial model consisting of two nacre-associated proteins, C-RING AP7 (shell nacre, Haliotis rufescens) and pseudo-EF hand PFMG1 (oyster pearl nacre, Pinctada fucata), whose individual in vitro mineralization functionalities are well-documented and distinct from one another. Using scanning electron microscopy, flow cell scanning transmission electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, Ca(II) potentiometric titrations, and quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring quantitative analyses, we find that both nacre proteins are functionally active within the same mineralization environments and, at 1:1 molar ratios, synergistically create calcium carbonate mesoscale structures with ordered intracrystalline nanoporosities, extensively prolong nucleation times, and introduce an additional nucleation event. Further, these two proteins jointly create nanoscale protein aggregates or phases that under mineralization conditions further assemble into protein-mineral polymer-induced liquid precursor-like phases with enhanced ACC stabilization capabilities, and there is evidence of intermolecular interactions between AP7 and PFMG1 under these conditions. Thus, a combinatorial model system consisting of more than one defined biomineralization protein dramatically changes the outcome of the in vitro biomineralization process.

Damage-tolerance strategies for nacre tablets.

Nacre, a natural armor, exhibits prominent penetration resistance against predatory attacks. Unraveling its hierarchical toughening mechanisms and damage-tolerance design strategies may provide significant inspiration for the pursuit of high-performance artificial armors. In this work, relationships between the structure and mechanical performance of nacre were investigated. The results show that other than their brick-and-mortar structure, individual nacre tablets significantly contribute to the damage localization of nacre. Affected by intracrystalline organics, the tablets exhibit a unique fracture behavior. The synergistic action of the nanoscale deformation mechanisms increases the energy dissipation efficiency of the tablets and contributes to the preservation of the structural and functional integrity of the shell.

Heterogeneous distribution of dye-labelled biomineralizaiton proteins in calcite crystals.

Biominerals are highly ordered crystals mediated by organic matters especially proteins in organisms. However, how specific proteins are distributed inside biominerals are not well understood. In the present study, we use fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) to label extracted proteins from the shells of bivalve Pinctada fucata. By confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM), we observe a heterogeneous distribution of dye-labelled proteins inside synthetic calcite at the microscale. Proteins from the prismatic calcite layers accumulate at the edge of crystals while proteins from the nacreous aragonite layers accumulate at the center of crystals. Raman and X-ray powder diffraction show that both the proteins cannot alter the crystal phase. Scanning electron microscope demonstrates both proteins are able to affect the crystal morphology. This study may provide a direct approach for the visualization of protein distributions in crystals by small-molecule dye-labelled proteins as the additives in the crystallization process and improve our understanding of intracrystalline proteins distribution in biogenic calcites.

Extensible byssus of Pinctada fucata: Ca(2+)-stabilized nanocavities and a thrombospondin-1 protein.

The extensible byssus is produced by the foot of bivalve animals, including the pearl oyster Pinctada fucata, and enables them to attach to hard underwater surfaces. However, the mechanism of their extensibility is not well understood. To understand this mechanism, we analyzed the ultrastructure, composition and mechanical properties of the P. fucata byssus using electron microscopy, elemental analysis, proteomics and mechanical testing. In contrast to the microstructures of Mytilus sp. byssus, the P. fucata byssus has an exterior cuticle without granules and an inner core with nanocavities. The removal of Ca(2+) by ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) treatment expands the nanocavities and reduces the extensibility of the byssus, which is accompanied by a decrease in the ß-sheet conformation of byssal proteins. Through proteomic methods, several proteins with antioxidant and anti-corrosive properties were identified as the main components of the distal byssus regions. Specifically, a protein containing thrombospondin-1 (TSP-1), which is highly expressed in the foot, is hypothesized to be responsible for byssus extensibility. Together, our findings demonstrate the importance of inorganic ions and multiple proteins for bivalve byssus extension, which could guide the future design of biomaterials for use in seawater.

The Effect of NF-κB Signalling Pathway on Expression and Regulation of Nacrein in Pearl Oyster, Pinctada fucata.

Nacrein is the first identified and widely investigated molluscan matrix protein and is considered to play an important role in the shell formation of the pearl oyster, Pinctada fucata. Here, we investigate the effect of the NF-κB signalling pathway on Nacrein gene expression in P. fucata to elucidate the mechanisms involved in shell formation. Inhibition of NF-κB signalling decreased Nacrein promoter-dependent luciferase activity. However, co-transfection of the Nacrein promoter vector with Pf-IKK or Pf-Rel expression plasmids could enhance luciferase activity, thus proving NF-κB signalling could regulate the transcriptional activity of the Nacrein promoter. Gene silencing by RNA interference and subsequent observation of the inner surface of the nacreous layer of oyster shells by SEM, showed that suppression of the gene Pf-Rel lead to a partial inhibition of Nacrein expression, not only at the mRNA level but also at the protein level. The inner surface of the shells became abnormal. Electrophoretic mobility shift assays (EMSAs) revealed that Pf-Rel could directly bind to the relative sites of the Nacrein promoter. These results confirm that an important component of the NF-κB signalling pathway, Pf-Rel, can directly bind the Nacrein promoter in P. fucata, and regulate its transcription and shell formation.

Molecular characterization of the BMP7 gene and its potential role in shell formation in Pinctada martensii.

Bone morphogenetic protein 7 (BMP7), also called osteogenetic protein-1, can induce bone formation. In this study, the obtained full-length cDNA of BMP7 from Pinctada martensii (Pm-BMP7) was 2972 bp, including a 5'-untranslated region (UTR) of 294 bp, an open reading fragment of 1290 bp encoding a 429 amino acid polypeptide and a 3'-UTR of 1388 bp. The deduced protein sequence of Pm-BMP7 contained a signal peptide, a pro-domain and a mature peptide. The mature peptide consisted of 135 amino acids and included a transforming growth factor ß family domain with six shared cysteine residues. The protein sequence of Pm-BMP7 showed 66% identity with that from Crassostrea gigas. Two unigenes encoding Pm-BMPRI (Pm-BMP receptor I) and Pm-BMPRII were obtained from the transcriptome database of P. martensii. Tissue expression analysis demonstrated Pm-BMP7 and Pm-BMPRI were highly expressed in the mantle (shell formation related-tissue), while Pm-BMPRII was highly expressed in the foot. After inhibiting Pm-BMP7 expression using RNA interference (RNAi) technology, Pm-BMP7 mRNA was significantly down-regulated (p < 0.05) in the mantle pallium (nacre formation related-tissue) and the mantle edge (prismatic layer formation related-tissue). The microstructure, observed using a scanning electron microscope, indicated a disordered growth status in the nacre and obvious holes in the prismatic layer in the dsRNA-Pm-BMP7 injected-group. These results suggest that Pm-BMP7 plays a crucial role in the nacre and prismatic layer formation process of the shell.

A microstructural study of individual nacre tablet of Pinctada maxima.

Nacre tablets from the shell of Pinctada maxima were studied with SEM, TEM and STEM. The systematic nanolath morphology on the (001) surface of nacre tablets was observed after acidic etching and mechanical polishing. The nanolaths were along the [100] crystallographic orientation of aragonite crystal. The (010) and (100) cross section surfaces of the nacre tablets showed nanolath and nanograin morphologies, respectively, which was consistent with [100] crystallographic orientation of nanolath on the (001) surface. Sheet-like defects with low mass density were observed on the (001) plane inside nacre tablets and were considered to be the cause of nanolath morphology revealed on the surfaces by acidic etching and mechanical polishing. On the other hand, large block [110] twins that divide the nacre tablets into two sectors were identified. The implication of these twins on the understanding to the crystallization mechanism of nacre tablets was discussed.

A pearl protein self-assembles to form protein complexes that amplify mineralization.

The formation of the nacre pearl in marine invertebrates represents an on-demand production of mineralization in response to an irritant or parasite threat to the mantle organ. In the Japanese pearl oyster (Pinctada fucata), this process is mediated by a 12-member protein family known as PFMG (Pinctada fucata mantle gene). One of these proteins, PFGM1, has been implicated in modulating calcium carbonate crystal growth and has been reported to possess an EF-hand-like domain. In this report, we establish that the recombinant PFMG1 (rPFMG1) is an intrinsically disordered "imitator" EF-hand protein that increases the number of calcium carbonate mineral crystals that form relative to control scenarios and does not induce aragonite formation. This protein possesses a modified pseudo-EF-hand sequence at the C-terminal end which exhibits low homology (30-40%) to the pseudo-EF-hand mitochondrial SCaMCs buffering/solute transport proteins. This low sequence homology is the result of the inclusion of disorder-promoting amino acids and short amyloid-like aggregation-prone cross-ß-strand sequences within the putative PFMG1 pseudo-EF-hand sequence region. Similar to other nacre proteins, rPFMG1 oligomerizes to form amorphous, heterogeneously sized protein oligomers and films in vitro, and this process is enhanced by Ca(2+), which promotes the formation of aggregation-prone extended ß-strand structure within rPFMG1. From these results, we conclude that PFMG1 forms supramolecular assemblies that play an important role in amplifying the nucleation process that is crucial for coating or neutralizing invasive threats to the mantle organ.

Crystallographic orientation inhomogeneity and crystal splitting in biogenic calcite.

The calcitic prismatic units forming the outer shell of the bivalve Pinctada margaritifera have been analysed using scanning electron microscopy-electron back-scatter diffraction, transmission electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy. In the initial stages of growth, the individual prismatic units are single crystals. Their crystalline orientation is not consistent but rather changes gradually during growth. The gradients in crystallographic orientation occur mainly in a direction parallel to the long axis of the prism, i.e. perpendicular to the shell surface and do not show preferential tilting along any of the calcite lattice axes. At a certain growth stage, gradients begin to spread and diverge, implying that the prismatic units split into several crystalline domains. In this way, a branched crystal, in which the ends of the branches are independent crystalline domains, is formed. At the nanometre scale, the material is composed of slightly misoriented domains, which are separated by planes approximately perpendicular to the c-axis. Orientational gradients and splitting processes are described in biocrystals for the first time and are undoubtedly related to the high content of intracrystalline organic molecules, although the way in which these act to induce the observed crystalline patterns is a matter of future research.

Pearl microstructure and expression of shell matrix protein genes MSI31 and MSI60 in the pearl sac epithelium of Pinctada fucata by in situ hybridization.

Expression patterns of the shell matrix protein genes MSI31 and MSI60 in the pearl sac epithelium were examined by in situ hybridization 38 days after implantation, and related to pearl quality. A pearl sac that produced a nacreous pearl showed very weak expression of MSI31 and strong expression of MSI60. A pearl sac, which yielded a prismatic pearl, strongly expressed MSI31 and very weakly expressed MSI60. In a complex pearl, whose surface consisted of a mosaic of both nacreous and prismatic layers, the expression pattern of MSI31 and MSI60 similarly corresponded to the underlying surface structures of the pearl. A nacreous pearl whose pearl sac showed strong MSI31 expression had an entirely nacreous surface composed of a laminar structure with unusual tablet growth at the corresponding site. MSI31 and MSI60 are the major components of the shell matrix proteins of the nacreous and prismatic layers. Clearly, high expression of MSI31 does not always result in prismatic secretion. These observations cannot be explained solely on the basis of the expression patterns of MSI31 and MSI60. We propose that, in addition to the MSI genes that form the prismatic and nacreous layers, upstream from these genes there are regulatory master genes that determine whether a nacreous layer (aragonite) or a prismatic layer (calcite) is formed.

Initial formation of calcite crystals in the thin prismatic layer with the periostracum of Pinctada fucata.

Although the formation mechanism of calcite crystals in the prismatic layer has been studied well in many previous works, the initial state of calcite formation has not been observed in detail using electron microscopes. In this study, we report that the soft prismatic layer with transparent color (the thin prismatic layer) in the tip of the fresh shell of Pinctada fucata was picked up to observe the early calcification phase. A scanning electron microscope (SEM) image showed that the growth tip of the thin prismatic layer was covered by the periostracum, which was also where the initial formation of calcite crystals began. A cross-section containing the thin calcite crystals in the thin prismatic layer with the periostracum was made using a focused ion beam (FIB) system. In a transmission electron microscope (TEM) observation, the thin calcite crystal (thickness is about 1µm) on the periostracum was found to be a single crystal with the c-axis oriented perpendicular to the shell surface. On the other hand, many aggregated small particles consisting of bassanite crystals were observed in the periostracum suggesting the possibility that not only organic sulfate but also inorganic sulfates exist in the prismatic layer. These discoveries in the early calcification phase of the thin prismatic layer may help to clarify the mechanism of regulating the nucleation and orientation of the calcite crystal in the shell.

SHG as a new modality for large field of view imaging to monitor tissue collagen network.

For this study, we have considered a new large field of view imaging dedicated to matrix collagen (no stained samples). To integrate a multidimensional scale (non-sliced samples), a femtosecond oscillator (two photon excitation laser) has been coupled with a large field optical setup to collect SHG signal. We introduced an index (F-SHG) based on decay time response measured by TCSPC for, respectively, Fluorescence (F) and Second Harmonic Generation (SHG) values. For samples where protein collagen is the major component of extracellular matrix (skin) or not (nacre), we compared the index distribution (from 2 to 12) obtained with large field optical setup. In this work, we showed for the first time that multiscale large field imaging combined to multimodality approaches (SHG-TCSPC) could be an innovative and non invasive technique to detect and identify some biological interest molecules (collagen) in biomedical topics.

A possible mechanism for the formation of annual growth lines in bivalve shells.

We report a unique shell margin that differed from the usual shell structure of Pinctada fucata. We observed empty organic envelopes in the prismatic layer and the formation of the nacreous layer in the shell margin. All the characteristics of the growing margin indicated that the shell was growing rapidly. To explain this anomaly, we propose the concept of "jumping development". During jumping development, the center of growth in the bivalve shell jumps forward over a short time interval when the position of the mantle changes. Jumping development explains the unusual structure of the anomalous shell and the development of annual growth lines in typical shells. Annual growth lines are the result of a discontinuity in the shell microstructure induced by jumping development.

Characteristics of biogenic calcite in the prismatic layer of a pearl oyster, Pinctada fucata.

The fine structure of the calcite prism in the outer layer of a pearl oyster, Pinctada fucata, has been investigated using various electron beam techniques, in order to understand its characteristics and growth mechanism including the role of intracrystalline organic substances. As the calcite prismatic layer grows thicker, sinuous boundaries develop to divide the prism into a number of domains. The crystal misorientation between the adjacent domains is several to more than ten degrees. The component of the misorientation is mainly the rotation about the c-axis. There is no continuous organic membrane at the boundaries. Furthermore, the crystal orientation inside the domains changes gradually, as indicated by the electron back-scattered diffraction (EBSD) in a scanning electron microscope (SEM). Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) examination revealed that the domain consists of sub-grains of a few hundred nanometers divided by small-angle grain boundaries, which are probably the origin of the gradual change of the crystal orientation inside the domains. Spherular Fresnel contrasts were often observed at the small-angle grain boundaries, in defocused TEM images. Electron energy-loss spectroscopy (EELS) indicated the spherules are organic macromolecules, suggesting that incorporation of organic macromolecules during the crystal growth forms the sub-grain structure of the calcite prism.

A layered structure in the organic envelopes of the prismatic layer of the shell of the pearl oyster Pinctada margaritifera (Mollusca, Bivalvia).

The organic interprismatic layers of the mollusc Pinctada margaritifera are studied using a variety of highly spatially-resolved techniques to establish their composition and structure. Our results show that both the interlamellar sheets of the nacre and interprismatic envelopes form layered structures. Additionally, these organic layers are neither homogeneous in composition, nor continuous in their structure. Both structures play a major role in the biomineralization process and act as a boundary between mineral units.