Lessons learned about co-creation: developing a complex intervention in rural Peru.

Background: Co-creation is the process of involving stakeholders in the development of interventions. Although co-creation is becoming more widespread, reports of the process and lessons learned are scarce.Objective: To describe the process and lessons learned from using the COHESION manual, a co-creation methodology to develop interventions aimed at the improvement of diagnosis and/or management of chronic diseases at the primary healthcare level in a low-resource setting in Peru.Methods: Observational study to describe the use of the COHESION manual 'Moving from Research to Interventions: The COHESION Model' developed for a multi-country project in low- and middle-income countries for co-creation and the adaptations needed to customize it to the local context of rural communities in northern Peru.Results: The actual process of co-creation in Peru included co-creation-related questions in the formative research; an initial consultation with stakeholders at the micro, meso, and macro levels (e.g. community members, health workers, and policy-makers); the analysis of the collected data; a second consultation with each stakeholder group; the prioritization of intervention options; and finally the design of a theory of change for all activities included in the complex intervention. The complex intervention included: 1) offer training in specific diseases and soft skills to health workers, 2) create radio programs that promote chronic disease prevention and management plus empower patients to ask questions during their visits to primary health care (PHC) facilities, and 3) provide a small grant to the PHC for infrastructure improvement. Small adaptations to the COHESION manual were necessary for this co-creation process.Conclusion: This study provides a practical example of the process of co-creating complex interventions to increase access and quality of health care in a low-resource setting. The process, components, challenges and opportunities identified could be useful for other researchers who want to co-create interventions with beneficiaries in similar settings.

Population-based study in a rural area: methodology and challenges.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the planning, sampling, operational aspects of the field, and the sample obtained during a research conducted in a rural area, specifying and discussing the main logistical difficulties unique to these places and the solutions adopted. METHODS: We carried out a population-based, cross-sectional survey between January and June 2016, with a representative sample of the population aged 18 years or over living in the rural area of Pelotas (approximately 22,000 individuals), State of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. We collected demographic, socioeconomic, and health-related information, such as alcohol consumption, cigarette consumption, depressive symptoms, quality of diet, quality of life, physical activity, satisfaction with the health unit, overweight or obesity, and sleep problems. RESULTS: In the 720 domiciles sampled, 1,697 individuals were identified and 1,519 were interviewed (89.5%). The study initially drew 24 census tracts and proposed the visit to 42 households per tract; however, we need to adjust the method, such as decreasing the number of households per census tract (from 42 to 30) and identifying housing centers in each tract. The main reasons for these changes were difficulty accessing the area, large distances between households, misconceptions in the satellite data available (which did not fit the reality), and high cost of the field work. CONCLUSIONS: The previous detailed recognition of the research environment was crucial for decision making as the maps and territory had geographical inconsistencies. The strategies and techniques used in studies for the urban area are not applicable to the rural area given the outcomes observed in Pelotas. The decisions taken, keeping the methodological rigor, were essential to ensure the timely execution of the study with the financial resources available.

Community-Informed Health Promotion to Improve Health Behaviors in Honduras.

BACKGROUND: Honduras is the second poorest country in Central America. The already high burden of disease is disproportionately worse among individuals with less education and limited access to health care. Community engagement is needed to bridge the gap in health care resources with the need for health promotion and education. Culturally relevant health promotion activities can foster transcultural partnerships. PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to partner nursing students with village leaders to assess a community's health needs and implement health promotion activities in Honduras. DESIGN: Participatory action research was used in the study. METHOD: U.S. nursing students ( n = 4) partnered with a nonprofit organization and community partners in Villa Soleada to interview mothers in Villa Soleada, a Honduran village of 44 families, and implement health promotion activities targeted to the health priorities of their families. RESULTS: Structured interviews with 24 mothers identified gastrointestinal issues, health care access and quality, and malaria as the top three priorities. Ninety-two percent of respondents were interested in nurse-led health promotion. Activities engaged new community partners. DISCUSSION: This partnership and learning model was well received and sustainable. The U.S. nurses involved in the partnership gained exposure to Honduran health issues and led locally tailored health promotions in Villa Soleada. The community's response to health promotion were positive and future activities were planned. IMPLICATIONS: Nursing student's immersion experiences to support population-based health activities in low-resource settings are a replicable model that can help build healthier communities with a sustainable local infrastructure. Transcultural nursing experiences enhance students' perspectives, increase personal and professional development, strengthen nursing students' critical thinking skills, and for some students, confirm their desire to practice in an international arena.

Population-based study in a rural area: methodology and challenges / Estudo de base populacional na zona rural: metodologia e desafios

ABSTRACT OBJECTIVE To describe the planning, sampling, operational aspects of the field, and the sample obtained during a research conducted in a rural area, specifying and discussing the main logistical difficulties unique to these places and the solutions adopted. METHODS We carried out a population-based, cross-sectional survey between January and June 2016, with a representative sample of the population aged 18 years or over living in the rural area of Pelotas (approximately 22,000 individuals), State of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. We collected demographic, socioeconomic, and health-related information, such as alcohol consumption, cigarette consumption, depressive symptoms, quality of diet, quality of life, physical activity, satisfaction with the health unit, overweight or obesity, and sleep problems. RESULTS In the 720 domiciles sampled, 1,697 individuals were identified and 1,519 were interviewed (89.5%). The study initially drew 24 census tracts and proposed the visit to 42 households per tract; however, we need to adjust the method, such as decreasing the number of households per census tract (from 42 to 30) and identifying housing centers in each tract. The main reasons for these changes were difficulty accessing the area, large distances between households, misconceptions in the satellite data available (which did not fit the reality), and high cost of the field work. CONCLUSIONS The previous detailed recognition of the research environment was crucial for decision making as the maps and territory had geographical inconsistencies. The strategies and techniques used in studies for the urban area are not applicable to the rural area given the outcomes observed in Pelotas. The decisions taken, keeping the methodological rigor, were essential to ensure the timely execution of the study with the financial resources available.

RESUMO OBJETIVO Descrever o planejamento, a amostragem, os aspectos operacionais do campo e a amostra obtida durante pesquisa realizada na zona rural, especificando e discutindo as principais dificuldades logísticas peculiares a esses locais e as soluções adotadas. MÉTODOS Entre janeiro e junho de 2016, foi realizado inquérito transversal de base populacional, com amostra representativa da população com 18 anos de idade ou mais residente na zona rural de Pelotas (cerca de 22 mil), RS, Brasil. Foram coletadas informações demográficas, socioeconômicas e relacionadas à saúde, como consumo de bebidas alcoólicas, consumo de cigarros, sintomas depressivos, qualidade da alimentação, qualidade de vida, atividade física, satisfação com a unidade de saúde, excesso de peso ou obesidade e problemas do sono. RESULTADOS Em 720 domicílios amostrados, 1.697 indivíduos foram identificados e 1.519 foram entrevistados (89,5%). O estudo, inicialmente, sorteou 24 setores e propôs-se a visitar 42 domicílios/setor, mas foram necessárias adequações metodológicas, especialmente a redução do número de domicílios por setor (de 42 para 30) e a identificação de núcleos habitacionais nos setores. As principais razões para as adequações foram dificuldade de acesso aos locais, grandes distâncias entre residências, equívocos nos dados geográficos disponíveis via satélite (não condiziam com a realidade) e alto custo. CONCLUSÕES O prévio reconhecimento detalhado do ambiente de pesquisa foi fundamental para a tomada de decisão perante às inconsistências geográficas entre mapas e território. As estratégias e técnicas dos estudos na zona urbana não são aplicáveis à zona rural no que tange ao contexto observado em Pelotas. As medidas adotadas, mantendo o rigor metodológico, foram fundamentais para garantir a execução do estudo no tempo planejado e com os recursos financeiros disponíveis.

Setting health priorities in a community: a case example.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the methodology used in the process of setting health priorities for community intervention in a community of older adults. METHODS: Based on the results of a health diagnosis related to active aging, a prioritization process was conceived to select the priority intervention problem. The process comprised four successive phases of problem analysis and classification: (1) grouping by level of similarity, (2) classification according to epidemiological criteria, (3) ordering by experts, and (4) application of the Hanlon method. These stages combined, in an integrated manner, the views of health team professionals, community nursing and gerontology experts, and the actual community. RESULTS: The first stage grouped the identified problems by level of similarity, comprising a body of 19 issues for analysis. In the second stage these problems were classified by the health team members by epidemiological criteria (size, vulnerability, and transcendence). The nine most relevant problems resulting from the second stage of the process were submitted to expert analysis and the five most pertinent problems were selected. The last step identified the priority issue for intervention in this specific community with the participation of formal and informal community leaders: Low Social Interaction in Community Participation. CONCLUSIONS: The prioritization process is a key step in health planning, enabling the identification of priority problems to intervene in a given community at a given time. There are no default formulas for selecting priority issues. It is up to each community intervention team to define its own process with different methods/techniques that allow the identification of and intervention in needs classified as priority by the community. OBJETIVO: Descrever a metodologia utilizada no processo de estabelecimento de prioridades em saúde para intervenção comunitária, numa comunidade idosa. MÉTODOS: Partindo dos resultados de um diagnóstico de saúde no âmbito da promoção do envelhecimento ativo, concebeu-se um processo de estabelecimento de prioridades a fim de selecionar o problema prioritário para intervenção. O processo integrou quatro etapas sucessivas de análise e classificação dos problemas: (1) agrupamento por nível de similitude, (2) classificação de acordo com critérios epidemiológicos, (3) ordenação por peritos e (4) aplicação do método de Hanlon. No decurso destas etapas, combinaram-se, de forma integrada, as perspetivas dos profissionais da equipe de saúde, de peritos em enfermagem comunitária e gerontologia e da própria comunidade. RESULTADOS: Na primeira etapa, agruparam-se por nível de similitude os problemas identificados, constituindo-se um corpo de 19 problemas para análise. Na segunda, esses problemas foram classificados pelos elementos da equipe de saúde, mediante a aplicação de critérios de cariz epidemiológico (magnitude, vulnerabilidade e transcendência). Os nove problemas mais relevantes resultantes da operacionalização da segunda etapa do processo foram submetidos a análise por peritos, e selecionados os cinco problemas com maior pertinência de atuação. Na última etapa, com recurso à participação de líderes formais e informais da comunidade, identificou-se o problema prioritário para intervenção nessa comunidade específica: a Baixa Interação Social na Participação Comunitária. CONCLUSÕES: O processo de estabelecimento de prioridades é uma etapa fundamental do planejamento em saúde, permitindo identificar os problemas prioritários a intervir numa determinada comunidade e num determinado momento. Não existem fórmulas predeterminadas para a seleção de problemas prioritários. Cabe a cada equipe de intervenção comunitária a definição de um processo próprio com diferentes métodos/técnicas que possibilitem a identificação e intervenção em necessidades classificadas como prioritárias pela comunidade.

Setting health priorities in a community: a case example / Estabelecimento de prioridades em saúde numa comunidade: análise de um percurso

ABSTRACT OBJECTIVE To describe the methodology used in the process of setting health priorities for community intervention in a community of older adults. METHODS Based on the results of a health diagnosis related to active aging, a prioritization process was conceived to select the priority intervention problem. The process comprised four successive phases of problem analysis and classification: (1) grouping by level of similarity, (2) classification according to epidemiological criteria, (3) ordering by experts, and (4) application of the Hanlon method. These stages combined, in an integrated manner, the views of health team professionals, community nursing and gerontology experts, and the actual community. RESULTS The first stage grouped the identified problems by level of similarity, comprising a body of 19 issues for analysis. In the second stage these problems were classified by the health team members by epidemiological criteria (size, vulnerability, and transcendence). The nine most relevant problems resulting from the second stage of the process were submitted to expert analysis and the five most pertinent problems were selected. The last step identified the priority issue for intervention in this specific community with the participation of formal and informal community leaders: Low Social Interaction in Community Participation. CONCLUSIONS The prioritization process is a key step in health planning, enabling the identification of priority problems to intervene in a given community at a given time. There are no default formulas for selecting priority issues. It is up to each community intervention team to define its own process with different methods/techniques that allow the identification of and intervention in needs classified as priority by the community.

RESUMO OBJETIVO Descrever a metodologia utilizada no processo de estabelecimento de prioridades em saúde para intervenção comunitária, numa comunidade idosa. MÉTODOS Partindo dos resultados de um diagnóstico de saúde no âmbito da promoção do envelhecimento ativo, concebeu-se um processo de estabelecimento de prioridades a fim de selecionar o problema prioritário para intervenção. O processo integrou quatro etapas sucessivas de análise e classificação dos problemas: (1) agrupamento por nível de similitude, (2) classificação de acordo com critérios epidemiológicos, (3) ordenação por peritos e (4) aplicação do método de Hanlon. No decurso destas etapas, combinaram-se, de forma integrada, as perspetivas dos profissionais da equipe de saúde, de peritos em enfermagem comunitária e gerontologia e da própria comunidade. RESULTADOS Na primeira etapa, agruparam-se por nível de similitude os problemas identificados, constituindo-se um corpo de 19 problemas para análise. Na segunda, esses problemas foram classificados pelos elementos da equipe de saúde, mediante a aplicação de critérios de cariz epidemiológico (magnitude, vulnerabilidade e transcendência). Os nove problemas mais relevantes resultantes da operacionalização da segunda etapa do processo foram submetidos a análise por peritos, e selecionados os cinco problemas com maior pertinência de atuação. Na última etapa, com recurso à participação de líderes formais e informais da comunidade, identificou-se o problema prioritário para intervenção nessa comunidade específica: a Baixa Interação Social na Participação Comunitária. CONCLUSÕES O processo de estabelecimento de prioridades é uma etapa fundamental do planejamento em saúde, permitindo identificar os problemas prioritários a intervir numa determinada comunidade e num determinado momento. Não existem fórmulas predeterminadas para a seleção de problemas prioritários. Cabe a cada equipe de intervenção comunitária a definição de um processo próprio com diferentes métodos/técnicas que possibilitem a identificação e intervenção em necessidades classificadas como prioritárias pela comunidade.

Localización-asignación de los servicios de atención primaria en un área de salud / Location-assignation of the services of primary care in a health area

Introducción: la teoría de la localización comienza a contemplar problemáticas en las instalaciones de servicios. Por un lado, encuentra la localización óptima, y por otro, determina la asignación de demanda a dichos centros. Los servicios de salud no se escapan de esta problemática de localización. La ubicación espacial resulta de gran importancia, particularmente, en el ámbito de los servicios públicos apunta a mejorar los niveles de equidad espacial para la población. Objetivo: reasignar la población perteneciente a los consultorios del médico de la familia, minimizando la distancia total que deberá recorrer los pacientes hacia ellos. Materiales y métodos: se realizó la reasignación de la población en los consultorios del médico de la familia pertenecientes al Policlínico Universitario Carlos Verdugo, de la ciudad de Matanzas. Entre las principales herramientas y técnicas que se utilizaron se encuentran: observación, revisión de documentos, entrevista individual, métodos de expertos, método de localización del centro de gravedad y herramienta informática GeoMap de apoyo a la asignación de zonas a los consultorios minimizando distancia. Además, se trabajó con el Excel, Autocad, Mapinfo. Resultados: la evaluación de la localización de los consultorios pertenecientes al Policlínico Universitario Carlos Verdugo, a partir de la utilización del método de centro de gravedad, así como la propuesta de una mejora en cuanto a la reubicación de las zonas según la distribución de la población asignada a estos consultorios peor ubicados minimizando la distancia a recorrer hacia estos servicios, a partir de la utilización de una herramienta informática. Conclusiones: el método empleado demostró un fácil y rápido acceso a los servicios de atención primaria como aspecto relevante en la efectividad del sistema de salud, así como en la planificación y satisfacción de los pacientes con el servicio prestado.

Introduction: the location theory begins taking into account the problems in service facilities. From one side it finds the optimal location, and from the other, it determines the demand assignation to these centers. Health services do not escape from this location problem. The special location acquires great importance, and particularly in the field of public services’, it tends to improve the level of spatial equity for the population. Objective: reassigning the population belonging to the family physician consultations, minimizing the total distance the patients have to go through up to them. Materials and methods: we made the re-assignation of the population in the family physician consultations belonging to the University Policlinic Carlos Verdugo, of the city of Matanzas. Among the main tools and techniques used are: observation, documents reviewing, individual interview, expertise methods, method of locating the gravity center, and GeoMap informatics tool supporting the assignation of zones to the consultations, minimizing distances. Besides that, we worked with Excel, Autocad, Mapinfo. Results: the assessment of the location of consultations belonging to the University Policlinic Carlos Verdugo, on the basis of the usage of the gravity center method, and also the proposal of an improvement related with zones relocation according to the distribution of population assigned to the worse-located consultations, minimizing the distance to go through to these services, using an informatics tool. Conclusions: the used method showed an easy and fast access to primary care services, as a relevant aspect in the health system effectiveness, and also in the planning and satisfaction of the patients with the given service.

Implementation of a new dantrolene formulation across a multifacility health system.

PURPOSE: An initiative to optimize the treatment of malignant hyperthermia in surgical patients through a dantrolene product conversion program is described. SUMMARY: A large health system's formulary evaluation of a new dantrolene sodium product indicated that despite a higher cost per treatment course, the product could offer key advantages over older formulations of dantrolene in terms of preparation and administration time, product content, and storage requirements. A work group, consisting of pharmacy personnel, an anesthesiologist, a nurse anesthetist, and a representative of the health system's group purchasing organization, determined that a switch to the new dantrolene product would offer both patient care benefits and process benefits. With the approval of the health system's pharmacy and therapeutics committee, the new product was added to the formulary as the preferred dosage form of dantrolene, and existing dantrolene product stock was converted to the new formulation. Key implementation steps included (1) concurrent replacement of dantrolene stock on all "malignant hyperthermia carts" across the 15-hospital health system, (2) development of educational materials to raise awareness of the conversion and revised product preparation procedures, (3) anesthesiology provider and pharmacy staff education, (4) revision of dantrolene listings in each hospital's computerized prescriber-order-entry system, and (5) redistribution of returned dantrolene product stock. The dantrolene product conversion occurred over a four-month period. CONCLUSION: A multifacility health system was successful in converting an existing stock of dantrolene to a newly available formulation.

Localización-asignación de los servicios de atención primaria en un área de salud / Location-assignation of the services of primary care in a health area

Introducción: la teoría de la localización comienza a contemplar problemáticas en las instalaciones de servicios. Por un lado, encuentra la localización óptima, y por otro, determina la asignación de demanda a dichos centros. Los servicios de salud no se escapan de esta problemática de localización. La ubicación espacial resulta de gran importancia, particularmente, en el ámbito de los servicios públicos apunta a mejorar los niveles de equidad espacial para la población.Objetivo: reasignar la población perteneciente a los consultorios del médico de la familia, minimizando la distancia total que deberá recorrer los pacientes hacia ellos.Materiales y métodos: se realizó la reasignación de la población en los consultorios del médico de la familia pertenecientes al Policlínico Universitario Carlos Verdugo, de la ciudad de Matanzas. Entre las principales herramientas y técnicas que se utilizaron se encuentran: observación, revisión de documentos, entrevista individual, métodos de expertos, método de localización del centro de gravedad y herramienta informática GeoMap de apoyo a la asignación de zonas a los consultorios minimizando distancia. Además, se trabajó con el Excel, Autocad, Mapinfo.Resultados: la evaluación de la localización de los consultorios pertenecientes al Policlínico Universitario Carlos Verdugo, a partir de la utilización del método de centro de gravedad, así como la propuesta de una mejora en cuanto a la reubicación de las zonas según la distribución de la población asignada a estos consultorios peor ubicados minimizando la distancia a recorrer hacia estos servicios, a partir de la utilización de una herramienta informática.Conclusiones: el método empleado demostró un fácil y rápido acceso a los servicios de atención primaria como aspecto relevante en la efectividad del sistema de salud, así como en la planificación y satisfacción de los pacientes con el servicio prestado. (AU)

Introduction: the location theory begins taking into account the problems in service facilities. From one side it finds the optimal location, and from the other, it determines the demand assignation to these centers. Health services do not escape from this location problem. The special location acquires great importance, and particularly in the field of public services, it tends to improve the level of spatial equity for the population.Objective: reassigning the population belonging to the family physician consultations, minimizing the total distance the patients have to go through up to them.Materials and methods: we made the re-assignation of the population in the family physician consultations belonging to the University Policlinic Carlos Verdugo, of the city of Matanzas. Among the main tools and techniques used are: observation, documents reviewing, individual interview, expertise methods, method of locating the gravity center, and GeoMap informatics tool supporting the assignation of zones to the consultations, minimizing distances. Besides that, we worked with Excel, Autocad, Mapinfo.Results: the assessment of the location of consultations belonging to the University Policlinic Carlos Verdugo, on the basis of the usage of the gravity center method, and also the proposal of an improvement related with zones relocation according to the distribution of population assigned to the worse-located consultations, minimizing the distance to go through to these services, using an informatics tool.Conclusions: the used method showed an easy and fast access to primary care services, as a relevant aspect in the health system effectiveness, and also in the planning and satisfaction of the patients with the given service. (AU)

Ministerio de Salud: Plan de Salud 2016-2019: Equipos de salud territoriales

Lineamientos estratégicos para desarrollar una atención primaria de acceso universal, equitativo, y oportuno. La visión del plan es desarrollar una red de cuidados integrales y progresivos, basada en las necesidades y la participación de la comunidad, que brinde servicios de calidad y eficientes en pos de la satisfacción ciudadana.

Health impact assessment of urban waterway decisions.

Health impact assessments (HIA) promote the consideration of health in a wide range of public decisions. Although each HIA is different, common pathways, evidence bases, and strategies for community engagement tend to emerge in certain sectors, such as urban redevelopment, natural resource extraction, or transportation planning. To date, a limited number of HIAs have been conducted on decisions affecting water resources and waterfronts. This review presents four recent HIAs of water-related decisions in the United States and Puerto Rico. Although the four cases are topically and geographically diverse, several common themes emerged from the consideration of health in water-related decisions. Water resource decisions are characterized by multiple competing uses, inter-institutional and inter-jurisdictional complexity, scientific uncertainty, long time scales for environmental change, diverse cultural and historical human values, and tradeoffs between private use and public access. These four case studies reveal challenges and opportunities of examining waterfront decisions through a "health lens". This review analyzes these cases, common themes, and lessons learned for the future practice of HIA in the waterfront zone and beyond.

Análisis de la situación de salud en una comunidad especial / Analysis of the health situation in a special community

El análisis de la situación de salud, por los servicios médicos, en una comunidad especial, incluye además de elementos curativos y preventivos, el entorno biológico y social del colectivo. El propósito del presente trabajo ha sido analizar los elementos teóricos que debe contener esta propuesta en un sistema primario de salud. Se abordan los aspectos que caracterizan actualmente este proceso en el nivel primario y se reflexiona acerca de sus perspectivas de desarrollo en función de mejorar la salud comunitaria. Se ofrecen aspectos conceptuales generales para la realización del análisis en las comunidades especiales bajo el liderazgo de los médicos, así como su metodología general para el desarrollo exitoso(AU)

The analysis of the health situation by medical services in a special community includes, besides healing and preventive elements, the biological and social environment of the community. The purpose of the present work has been to analyze theoretical elements of this proposal in a primary health system. The aspects characterizing this process at the moment in the primary care are approached and it is thought about its developmental perspectives with the purpose of improving community health. General conceptual aspects are provided for the analysis in special communities under the leadership of physicians, as well as its general methodology for the successful development(AU)

Analysis of the effectiveness of interventions used during the 2009 A/H1N1 influenza pandemic.

BACKGROUND: Following the emergence of the A/H1N1 2009 influenza pandemic, public health interventions were activated to lessen its potential impact. Computer modelling and simulation can be used to determine the potential effectiveness of the social distancing and antiviral drug therapy interventions that were used at the early stages of the pandemic, providing guidance to public health policy makers as to intervention strategies in future pandemics involving a highly pathogenic influenza strain. METHODS: An individual-based model of a real community with a population of approximately 30,000 was used to determine the impact of alternative interventions strategies, including those used in the initial stages of the 2009 pandemic. Different interventions, namely school closure and antiviral strategies, were simulated in isolation and in combination to form different plausible scenarios. We simulated epidemics with reproduction numbers R0 of 1.5, which aligns with estimates in the range 1.4-1.6 determined from the initial outbreak in Mexico. RESULTS: School closure of 1 week was determined to have minimal effect on reducing overall illness attack rate. Antiviral drug treatment of 50% of symptomatic cases reduced the attack rate by 6.5%, from an unmitigated rate of 32.5% to 26%. Treatment of diagnosed individuals combined with additional household prophylaxis reduced the final attack rate to 19%. Further extension of prophylaxis to close contacts (in schools and workplaces) further reduced the overall attack rate to 13% and reduced the peak daily illness rate from 120 to 22 per 10,000 individuals. We determined the size of antiviral stockpile required; the ratio of the required number of antiviral courses to population was 13% for the treatment-only strategy, 25% for treatment and household prophylaxis and 40% for treatment, household and extended prophylaxis. Additional simulations suggest that coupling school closure with the antiviral strategies further reduces epidemic impact. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that the aggressive use of antiviral drugs together with extended school closure may substantially slow the rate of influenza epidemic development. These strategies are more rigorous than those actually used during the early stages of the relatively mild 2009 pandemic, and are appropriate for future pandemics that have high morbidity and mortality rates.

Análisis de la situación de salud en una comunidad especial / Analysis of the health situation in a special community

El análisis de la situación de salud, por los servicios médicos, en una comunidad especial, incluye además de elementos curativos y preventivos, el entorno biológico y social del colectivo. El propósito del presente trabajo ha sido analizar los elementos teóricos que debe contener esta propuesta en un sistema primario de salud. Se abordan los aspectos que caracterizan actualmente este proceso en el nivel primario y se reflexiona acerca de sus perspectivas de desarrollo en función de mejorar la salud comunitaria. Se ofrecen aspectos conceptuales generales para la realización del análisis en las comunidades especiales bajo el liderazgo de los médicos, así como su metodología general para el desarrollo exitoso.

The analysis of the health situation by medical services in a special community includes, besides healing and preventive elements, the biological and social environment of the community. The purpose of the present work has been to analyze theoretical elements of this proposal in a primary health system. The aspects characterizing this process at the moment in the primary care are approached and it is thought about its developmental perspectives with the purpose of improving community health. General conceptual aspects are provided for the analysis in special communities under the leadership of physicians, as well as its general methodology for the successful development.

A role for community health promoters in tuberculosis control in the state of Chiapas, Mexico.

We conducted a qualitative study employing structured interviews with 38 community health workers, known as health promoters, from twelve rural municipalities of Chiapas, Mexico in order to characterize their work and identify aspects of their services that would be applicable to community-based tuberculosis (TB) control programs. Health promoters self-identify as being of Mayan Indian ethnicity. Most are bilingual, speaking Spanish and one of four indigenous Mayan languages native to Chiapas. They volunteer 11 h each week to conduct clinical and public health work in their communities. Over half (53%) work with a botiquín, a medicine cabinet stocked with essential medicines. Fifty-three percent identify TB as a major problem affecting the health of their communities, with one-fifth (21%) of promoters reporting experience caring for patients with known or suspected TB and 29% having attended to patients with hemoptysis. One-third of health promoters have access to antibiotics (32%) and one-half have experience with their administration; 55% complement their biomedical treatments with traditional Mayan medicinal plant therapies in caring for their patients. We describe how health promoters employ both traditional and allopathic medicine to treat the symptoms and diseases they encounter most frequently which include fever, diarrhea, and parasitic infections. We contend that given the complex sociopolitical climate in Chiapas and the state's unwavering TB epidemic and paucity of health care infrastructure in rural areas, efforts to implement comprehensive, community-based TB control would benefit from employing the services of health promoters.

Cognitive performance is related to cortical grey matter volumes in early stages of schizophrenia: a population-based study of first-episode psychosis.

BACKGROUND: Neuropsychological deficits have been reported in association with first-episode psychosis (FEP). Reductions in grey matter (GM) volumes have been documented in FEP subjects compared to healthy controls. However, the possible inter-relationship between the findings of those two lines of research has been scarcely investigated. OBJECTIVE: To investigate the relationship between neuropsychological deficits and GM volume abnormalities in a population-based sample of FEP patients compared to healthy controls from the same geographical area. METHODS: FEP patients (n=88) and control subjects (n=86) were evaluated by neuropsychological assessment (Controlled Oral Word Association Test, forward and backward digit span tests) and magnetic resonance imaging using voxel-based morphometry. RESULTS: Single-group analyses showed that prefrontal and temporo-parietal GM volumes correlated significantly (p<0.05, corrected) with cognitive performance in FEP patients. A similar pattern of direct correlations between neocortical GM volumes and cognitive impairment was seen in the schizophrenia subgroup (n=48). In the control group, cognitive performance was directly correlated with GM volume in the right dorsal anterior cingulate cortex and inversely correlated with parahippocampal gyral volumes bilaterally. Interaction analyses with "group status" as a predictor variable showed significantly greater positive correlation within the left inferior prefrontal cortex (BA46) in the FEP group relative to controls, and significantly greater negative correlation within the left parahippocampal gyrus in the control group relative to FEP patients. CONCLUSION: Our results indicate that cognitive deficits are directly related to brain volume abnormalities in frontal and temporo-parietal cortices in FEP subjects, most specifically in inferior portions of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex.

Augmenting frameworks for appraising the practices of community-based health interventions.

This paper aims at augmenting the frameworks proposed by Rifkin in 1996 to distinguish between target-oriented and empowerment approaches to participation in community-based health interventions. In her paper, Rifkin defined three criteria: who makes decisions on resource allocation, expected outcome and outcome assessment. We propose five additional criteria: the definition of community, the characteristics of the capacity-building process, the leadership characteristics, the documentation process, and ethical issues regarding participation. Derived from our analysis of a community-based project, the proposed criteria are discussed in the light of the principles of Popular Education and other literature on community participation. The augmented frameworks are intended to assist health professionals and planners interested in the empowerment approach of community participation to consciously sharpen their practice.

Health surveillance: proposal for a tool to evaluate technological arrangements in local health systems.

In order to identify the various meanings ascribed to health surveillance, the authors conducted a systematic review of articles published from January 1990 to August 2005 in the following databases: LILACS, SciELO, CAPES, MEDLINE, and Web of Science. A total of 144 abstracts were read and 18 full texts of Brazilian articles were selected for in-depth analysis, leading to the design of a typology for technological arrangements related to the various meanings: (i) traditional epidemiological surveillance, with communicable diseases as the main object; (ii) public health surveillance, as the municipal component of the national health surveillance system; and (iii) health surveillance, a technological mode of organizing health practices in a given territory. The proposed typology can contribute to research on surveillance practices in local health systems. It can also serve as a template for data collection and analysis. The meanings ascribed to the three types are discussed in light of public health's historical development as a field.

Using a multisectoral approach to assess HIV/AIDS services in the western region of Puerto Rico.

The Enhancing Care Initiative of Puerto Rico assessed services available to people living with HIV/AIDS in the western region of Puerto Rico. Participants were 212 people living with HIV/AIDS and 116 employees from 6 agencies providing HIV/AIDS services in the region. Two main findings were that depression symptoms were present in 98.1% of people living with HIV/AIDS, and 7 of the 15 municipalities in the region did not provide any specific services to this population. Most urgent needs identified by people living with HIV/AIDS were economic support, housing, mental and psychological services, medicines, medical treatment, and transportation. The Enhancing Care Initiative provides an example of a successful multisectoral, multidimensional volunteer team effectively overcoming challenges while translating research into interventions to enhance HIV/AIDS care.