Bladder ultrasonography in the assessment of cauda equina syndrome in the emergency department: a literature review.

For cauda equina syndrome (CES), current clinical assessment in the emergency department usually involves perianal sensation (PAS) and anal tone (AT). Neither reliably predict magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) demonstrating a large central disc prolapse (MRI+). Other clinical examination findings increase the probability of MRI+. Other tests of sacral nerve root function include anal squeeze (AS) and the bulbocavernosus reflex (BCR). If BCR, PAS and AT, and AS are combined and they are all normal, CES can be excluded in almost all cases. Portable bladder ultrasonography is now commonly used to assess bladder function, particularly in measuring the post-void residual urinary volume (PVR). PVR is deemed normal at <50ml. If the PVR is <200ml and there are no objective signs, MRI+ is rare. If the PVR is >200ml, MRI+ is found in 43% of cases. The combined assessment of PAS, AT and AS (and BCR in selected cases) and PVR increases the specificity and sensitivity of a clinical diagnosis of CES (i.e. maximising MRI+ and minimising MRI-). Recommendations for when to perform MRI are made.

Post-void bladder ultrasound in suspected cauda equina syndrome-data from medicolegal cases and relevance to magnetic resonance imaging scanning.

OBJECTIVE: Post-void residual (PVR) scans of less than 200 ml are increasingly being used to rule out the likelihood of cauda equina syndrome (CES) and to delay emergency MRI scanning in suspected cases. This study was done to review a series of 50 MRI confirmed cases of CES and to test the hypothesis that a PVR of less than 200 ml was unlikely to be present. METHODS: Fifty consecutive medicolegal cases involving CES were audited. Records were reviewed to see if PVR scans were done. MRI scans were reviewed, clinical and radiological diagnosis reviewed, and treatment recorded. RESULTS: Out of 50 CES cases, 26 had had PVR scans. In 14/26 (54%) the PVR scan was ≤ 200 ml. In one case, the CES diagnosis was in question leaving 13/26 (50%) cases where there was a clear clinical and MRI diagnosis of CES despite the PVR being ≤ 200 ml. All 13 were classified as incomplete cauda equina syndrome (CESI) and all proceeded to emergency decompression. CONCLUSIONS: This study is the first in the literature to demonstrate that there is a significant group of CES patients who require emergency decompression but have PVRs ≤ 200 ml. The results demonstrate the existence of a significant group of CESI patients whose bladder function may be deteriorating, but they have not yet reached the point where the PVR is over 200 ml. Given the accepted understanding that CESI is best treated with emergency decompression, such patients are likely to have worse outcomes if MRI scanning and therefore surgery is delayed. We recommend the following: PVR is recommended as an assessment tool in suspected CES. A PVR of ≤ 200 reduces the likelihood of having CES but does not exclude it; clinical suspicion of CES should always lead to an MRI scan. Further investigation of PVR as a prognostic tool is recommended.

Late presentation of a cauda equina lesion with a vulval abscess: a case report.

BACKGROUND: Cauda equina syndrome is a rare clinical condition that requires prompt diagnosis and timely surgical decompression with postoperative rehabilitation to prevent devastating complications. CASE PRESENTATION: A 55-year-old Sinhalese woman presented with a vulval abscess, with a history of involuntary leakage of urine for the last 7 years. Her sexual activity has been compromised due to coital incontinence, and she had also been treated for recurrent urinary tract infections during the last 7 years. On examination, a distended bladder was found. Neurological examination revealed a saddle sensory loss of S2-S4 dermatomes. There was no sensory loss over the lower limbs. Bladder sensation was absent, but there was some degree of anal sphincter tone. Motor functions and reflexes were normal in the limbs. Magnetic resonance imaging revealed L5-S1 spondylolisthesis. Ultrasound imaging confirmed the finding of a distended bladder, in addition to bilateral hydroureters with hydronephrosis. An incision and drainage with concomitant intravenous antibiotics were started for the vulval abscess. An indwelling catheter was placed to decompress the bladder and to reduce vulval excoriations due to urine. Bilateral ureteric stenting was performed later for persistent hydronephrosis and hydroureter despite an empty bladder. CONCLUSION: This is a tragic case that illustrates the devastating long-term sequelae that ensues if cauda equina syndrome is left undiagnosed. It reiterates the importance of prompt referral and surgical decompression.

Prevalence of cervical and lumbosacral compressive radiculopathies in Qena governorate/Egypt: Population-based survey.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of the study was to estimate the crude prevalence rate (CPR) of compressive radiculopathies in Qena governorate/Egypt. PATIENTS AND METHODS: 10 areas in Qena governorate were selected by random sampling, involving 9303 inhabitants with 57.3% urban residents and 42.7% rural residence. Patients were diagnosed using a screening questionnaire for the diagnosis of cervical and lumbosacral radiculopathies. All positive cases were referred to Qena University Hospital where they underwent full neurological examination, neuro-imaging, and neurophysiological investigations. RESULTS: Out of 9303 inhabitants included in the study (1057 families), 49 cases were recruited positive on initial survey and 32 cases were confirmed after clinical examination, neuroimaging and neurophysiological examinations, giving a CPR of 10.1/1000 in those aged over 30 years. Compressive radiculopathy was more common in males than females (13 versus 6/1000) and in rural than urban populations (15 versus 7/1000). No cases were recruited below 30 years old. The highest age specific prevalence was at ≥60 years with a CPR of 26/1000. 11 cases had cervical radiculopathy while 21 cases had lumbosacral radiculopathy (CPR of 3.7 and 6.6/1000 respectively). The highest age specific CPR for males was earlier than females at 50-59 versus ≥60 years. CONCLUSION: The overall CPR of compressive radiculopathy in the general population in Qena governorate/Egypt is similar for cervical radiculopathy but higher for lumbosacral radiculopathy than a previous Egyptian study but mid-way compared to other countries.

Primary Epstein-Barr virus infection in immunocompetent patients with acute transverse myelitis and a combination of polyradiculitis and anterior horn syndrome as neurological manifestations.

Neurological manifestations of a primary Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection are rare. We describe a case with acute transverse myelitis and another case with a combination of polyradiculitis and anterior horn syndrome as manifestations of a primary EBV infection.The first case is a 50-year-old immunocompetent male diagnosed with acute transverse myelitis, 2 weeks after he was clinically diagnosed with infectious mononucleosis. The second case is an 18-year-old immunocompetent male diagnosed with a combination of polyradiculitis and anterior horn syndrome while he had infectious mononucleosis. The first patient was treated with methylprednisolone. After 1 year, he was able to stop performing clean intermittent self-catheterisation. The second patient completely recovered within 6 weeks without treatment.Primary EBV infection should be considered in immunocompetent patients presenting with acute transverse myelitis and a combination of polyradiculitis and anterior horn syndrome. Antiviral treatment and steroids are controversial, and the prognosis of neurological sequelae is largely unknown.

[A case of neurolymphomatosis presented as cauda equine syndrome accompanied with M-proteinemia].

A 63-year-old man developed a syndrome of cauda equine, with the numbness which is a left lower extremity from the left buttocks, weakness of left leg, and a dysfunction of bladder and bowel. Enhanced MRI revealed the enhancement of lower cauda equine, and a nerve conduction test revealed decreased F-wave persistency in the tibial nerve and increased F-wave latency in the peroneal nerve on the both sides. M-proteinemia was admitted and myeloma was suspected. By a biopsy of a vertebral arch, we diagnosed with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. We treated with dexamethasone and R-CHOP (rituximab, cyclophosphamide, hydroxydaunorubicin, oncovin, prednisone (prednisolone)), then the symptom was improved. In case of caude equine syndrome with M-proteinemia, a possibility of the malignant lymphoma should also be considered.

Neurological recovery after traumatic Cauda Equina syndrome due to glass fragments: An unusual case.

Penetrating spinal injuries with foreign bodies are exceedingly rare. To date, pathological problems due to glass fragments in the spinal canal have rarely been reported. In this report, the case presenting with a back laceration, leg pain, and leg weakness was found to have glass frag-ments in the spinal canal at the L2-L3 level by lumbar computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging. After L2 total laminectomy and retrieval of the glass fragments, the dura was re-paired. The patient was discharged from the hospital after complete neurological recovery. In cases of spinal canal injuries due to foreign bodies, early operative decompression of the neural elements is the treatment of choice. Patients with Cauda Equina syndrome due to glass fragments have a good prognosis for functional recovery.

A novel duraplasty technique following fenestration of a massive lumbar arachnoid cyst in a patient with scoliosis: technical case report.

When a dural defect is encountered during spine surgery, the dura mater must be reconstituted to minimize the occurrence of minor or major life-threatening sequelae. The neurosurgical literature lacks strategies for managing large dural defects encountered during surgery. The authors describe a 24-year-old man who developed cauda equina syndrome secondary to altered CSF flow in a large thoracolumbar arachnoid cyst. Surgical decompression and fenestration of the arachnoid cyst were performed, and the large dural defect was treated using a multilayer closure with collagen matrix, titanium mesh, and methylmethacrylate. At his 24-month postoperative follow-up, the patient had recovered full strength in his legs, and his sensory deficits and sexual dysfunction had resolved. His incision had healed well, and there were no signs of pseudomeningocele. He had no additional positional headaches. The defect was managed effectively with this technique. Although this technique is not a first-line strategy for dural closure in the spine, it can be considered in challenging cases when large dural defects are not amenable to traditional closure techniques.

Rare Thymoma Metastases to the Spine: Case Reports and Review of the Literature.

BACKGROUND: We report a series of 3 cases of metastatic thymoma to the spine with spinal cord compression. An extensive literature review of thymic metastases to the spine was completed to provide a comprehensive appraisal of current prognostic indicators and potential treatment algorithms to help guide clinicians in treatment management. CASE DESCRIPTIONS: Between 2000 and 2017, 3 patients received diagnoses of thymic metastases to the spine at our institution. Metastasis presentation occurred from 2 to 8 years after the initial diagnosis with thymic cancer. All 3 patients presented with signs and symptoms of spinal cord/cauda equina compression, and underwent surgical intervention. Postoperative treatments varied among all 3 patients, 1 receiving chemotherapy, another undergoing radiation, and the third having had no further treatment because of extensive systemic disease. CONCLUSIONS: Upon review of the literature, 16 case reports/series described 28 total patients with spine metastases secondary to thymoma/thymic carcinoma. The presentations varied widely, including age, neurologic deficits, time from initial diagnosis to metastasis, and histologic grading. The only widely accepted prognostic factor is completeness of tumor resection, whereas clinical staging, histologic type, or both may also have prognostic value. Thus, gross total resection and spinal decompression should be prioritized in cases of surgical intervention. Chemotherapy and radiotherapy are generally recommended. However, given the lack of standardized treatment algorithms, individualized regimens should be formulated on a case-specific basis.

Lumbar spinal canal MRI diameter is smaller in herniated disc cauda equina syndrome patients.

INTRODUCTION: Correlation between magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and clinical features in cauda equina syndrome (CES) is unknown; nor is known whether there are differences in MRI spinal canal size between lumbar herniated disc patients with CES versus lumbar herniated discs patients without CES, operated for sciatica. The aims of this study are 1) evaluating the association of MRI features with clinical presentation and outcome of CES and 2) comparing lumbar spinal canal diameters of lumbar herniated disc patients with CES versus lumbar herniated disc patients without CES, operated because of sciatica. METHODS: MRIs of CES patients were assessed for the following features: level of disc lesion, type (uni- or bilateral) and severity of caudal compression. Pre- and postoperative clinical features (micturition dysfunction, defecation dysfunction, altered sensation of the saddle area) were retrieved from the medical files. In addition, anteroposterior (AP) lumbar spinal canal diameters of CES patients were measured at MRI. AP diameters of lumbar herniated disc patients without CES, operated for sciatica, were measured for comparison. RESULTS: 48 CES patients were included. At MRI, bilateral compression was seen in 82%; complete caudal compression in 29%. MRI features were not associated with clinical presentation nor outcome. AP diameter was measured for 26 CES patients and for 31 lumbar herniated disc patients without CES, operated for sciatica. Comparison displayed a significant smaller AP diameter of the lumbar spinal canal in CES patients (largest p = 0.002). Compared to average diameters in literature, diameters of CES patients were significantly more often below average than that of the sciatica patients (largest p = 0.021). CONCLUSION: This is the first study demonstrating differences in lumbar spinal canal size between lumbar herniated disc patients with CES and lumbar herniated disc patients without CES, operated for sciatica. This finding might imply that lumbar herniated disc patients with a relative small lumbar spinal canal might need to be approached differently in managing complaints of herniated disc. Since the number of studied patients is relatively small, further research should be conducted before clinical consequences are considered.

Anterior lumbar discectomy and fusion for acute cauda equina syndrome caused by recurrent disc prolapse: report of 3 cases.

There is a lack of information and consensus regarding the optimal treatment for recurrent disc herniation previously treated by posterior discectomy, and no reports have described an anterior approach for recurrent disc herniation causing cauda equina syndrome (CES). Revision posterior decompression, irrespective of the presence of CES, has been reported to be associated with significantly higher rates of dural tears, hematomas, and iatrogenic nerve root damage. The authors describe treatment and outcomes in 3 consecutive cases of patients who underwent anterior lumbar discectomy and fusion (ALDF) for CES caused by recurrent disc herniations that had been previously treated with posterior discectomy. All 3 patients were operated on within 12 hours of presentation and were treated with an anterior retroperitoneal lumbar approach. Follow-up ranged from 12 to 24 months. Complete retrieval of herniated disc material was achieved without encountering significant epidural scar tissue in all 3 cases. No perioperative infection or neurological injury occurred, and all 3 patients had neurological recovery with restoration of bladder and bowel function and improvement in back and leg pain. ALDF is one option to treat CES caused by recurrent lumbar disc prolapse previously treated with posterior discectomy. The main advantage is that it avoids dissection around epidural scar tissue, but the procedure is associated with other risks and further evaluation of its safety in larger series is required.

Cauda Equina Syndrome Due To Dural Sac Shift with Engorgement of the Epidural Venous Plexus: Rare Complication After Lumbar Microdiscectomy.

BACKGROUND: Several postoperative complications related to lumbar microdiscectomy have been reported, including cauda equina syndrome. However, to the best of our knowledge, postoperative cauda equina syndrome resulting from dural sac shift with engorgement of the epidural venous plexus is yet to be reported. CASE DESCRIPTION: A 71-year-old male patient was referred to our hospital with a chief complaint of pain and sensory disturbance due to the lumbar disc herniation of L5-S1. Microdiscectomy was performed to treat the lumbar disc herniation, and his sensory disturbance improved. However, from postoperative day 2, he started to complain of motor weakness, sensory disturbance of S2, and difficulty in urination. Magnetic resonance imaging showed the dural sac shifted to the bone window of L5-S1 with engorgement of the ventral epidural venous plexus. The dural sac shift was thought to be the cause of postoperative cauda equina syndrome, and laminoplasty was chosen to return the dural sac shift into the spinal canal. Cauda equina syndrome completely resolved after laminoplasty. Postoperative magnetic resonance imaging showed the reduction of the dural sac into the spinal canal. The patient was discharged from the hospital without any residual clinical symptoms. CONCLUSION: We report a rare case of postoperative cauda equina syndrome due to dural sac shift and discuss the nascent mechanism of the dural sac shift focusing on anatomic features of the dural sac. We also propose laminoplasty as an option to treat dural sac shift with engorgement of the epidural venous plexus.

Definitions of traumatic conus medullaris and cauda equina syndrome: a systematic literature review.

STUDY DESIGN: A systematic review. OBJECTIVES: Conus medullaris syndrome (CMS) and cauda equina syndrome (CES) are well-known neurological entities. It is assumed that these syndromes are different regarding neurological and functional prognosis. However, literature concerning spinal trauma is ambiguous about the exact definition of the syndromes. METHODS: A MEDLINE, EMBASE and Cochrane literature search was performed. We included original articles in which clinical descriptions of CMS and/or CES were mentioned in patients following trauma to the thoracolumbar spine. RESULTS: Out of the 1046 articles, we identified 14 original articles concerning patients with a traumatic CMS and/or CES. Based on this review and anatomical data from cadaveric and radiological studies, CMS and CES could be more precisely defined. CONCLUSION: CMS may result from injury of vertebrae Th12-L2, and it involves damage to neural structures from spinal cord segment Th12 to nerve root S5. CES may result from an injury of vertebrae L3-L5, and it involves damage to nerve roots L3-S5. This differentiation between CMS and CES is necessary to examine the hypothesis that CES patients tend to have a better functional outcome.