COVID-19 Pandemic and Resilience of the Transnational Home-Based Elder Care System between Poland and Germany.

As COVID-19 puts older people in long-term institutional care at the highest risk of infection and death, the need for home-based care has increased. Germany relies largely on migrant caregivers from Poland. Yet the pandemic-related mobility restrictions reveal the deficiencies of this transnational elder care system. This article asks if this system is resilient. In order to answer this question, the research team conducted interviews with 10 experts and randomly selected representatives of brokering and sending agencies in Germany and Poland. We interviewed 13 agencies in Germany and 15 in Poland on the agencies' characteristics, recruitment strategies, challenges of the pandemic, and impact of legal regulations in the sector. The analysis shows that the system could mobilize adaptive capacities and continue to deliver services, but its absorptive capacity is limited. To enhance resilience, policies working toward formalization and legalization of care services across national borders are required.

Is Cam Morphology Found in Ancient and Medieval Populations in Addition to Modern Populations?

BACKGROUND: Cam morphology is thought to originate near puberty and reflects a response of the peripheral aspect of the proximal femoral physis to increased local load. Participation in particular sports activities has been associated with cam morphology in contemporary patient populations; however, it is unclear whether cam is a recent phenomenon. There are limited data regarding the frequency of its occurrence and the general deviations in femoral anatomy in different historical populations. Such information may help to understand the possible influence of lifestyle and diet on cam morphology. QUESTIONS/PURPOSES: The purpose of this study was to evaluate femoral morphology in three historical populations. We asked: (1) Was cam morphology present in the three study populations, did those populations differ, and were there differences between sexes? (2) Were there differences in neck-shaft angle, version, or inclination between and among the examined populations? METHODS: We examined 204 adult femurs from the Neolithic population from Iran (n = 37, 3000 BC to 1631 BC), medieval population from Poland (n = 135, 10th to 13th centuries), and contemporary Australian aborigines (n = 32, early 20th century), provided by the Open Research Scan Archive, Museum of the First Piasts at Lednica and the University of Wroclaw, respectively. All three human populations represent different chronologic periods and lifestyles. All bones were scanned using CT and then measured on their three-dimensional (3-D) reconstructions in selected planes. Cam impingement was defined as an alpha angle > 55° measured on the inclination view. To evaluate the differences in anatomy between populations, we measured the true neck-shaft angle on the true AP view, apparent neck-shaft angle on the apparent AP view, the version angle on the version view, and the inclination angle on the inclination view. The prevalence of cam morphology and other anatomic parameters were compared among groups using chi-square test, one-way ANOVA with post hoc Tukey test, and paired t-test. RESULTS: Cam morphology was present in 5% of the Neolithic population from Iran, in 7% of the medieval population from Poland, and 3% of the contemporary Australian aborigine femurs (OR Neolithic population from Iran/the medieval population from Poland 0.7 [95% CI 0.2 to 3.4]; p = 0.67; OR Neolithic population from Iran/contemporary Australian aborigines 1.8 [95% CI 0.2 to 20.5]; p = 0.65; OR the medieval population from Poland/contemporary Australian aborigines 2.5 [95% CI 0.3 to 20.1]; p = 0.40). There were differences in the presence of cam morphology between the sexes in the medieval population from Poland with both femurs (females: 1% [1 of 76]; males: 15% [9 of 59]; p = 0.002). There was a difference in true neck-shaft angle between the Neolithic population from Iran (121° ± 6°) and contemporary Australian aborigines (131° ± 5°; mean difference 10° [95% CI 7° to 13°]; p < 0.001) and between the medieval population from Poland (124° ± 5°) and the contemporary Australian aborigines (mean difference 7° [95% CI 5° to 9°]; p < 0.001). Apparent neck-shaft angle differed between the Neolithic population from Iran (126° ± 6°) and the contemporary Australian aborigines (134° ± 5°; mean difference 8° [95% CI 6° to 11°]; p < 0.001), and between the medieval population from Poland (126° ± 6°) and the contemporary Australian aborigines (mean difference 9° [95% CI 7° to 11°]; p < 0.001). Moreover, we observed a difference in the version angle between the Neolithic population from Iran (19° ± 7°) and the medieval population from Poland (12° ± 9°; mean difference 7° [95% CI 4° to 10°]; p < 0.001] and in the inclination angle between aforementioned groups (18° ± 7° versus 11° ± 8°; mean difference 7° [95% CI 5° to 10°]; p < 0.001). CONCLUSION: This study found that cam morphology existed in historical populations at rates comparable with a contemporary population. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The presence of cam morphology in historical populations suggests that cam morphology can develop outside of the intense sports activity seen in modern adolescents. Further study will help elucidate the etiology of cam morphology, which may be useful in the development of preventive strategies.

Private Services and the Fragmentation of Maternity Care in Poland.

As a result of reforms aimed at adjusting it to the market economy, the Polish health care system has become a complicated mix of public and private services. Using as an example maternity services, I show how private services allow a subtle process of patient selection to emerge, contributing to the fragmentation of public care. The process of selection is based on social relations formed between health care providers and patients through the use of private services. This has a negative impact on women who do not have the social or financial resources to engage in private services.W wyniku reform majacych na celu dostosowanie do gospodarki rynkowej, opieka zdrowotna w Polsce przeksztalcona zostala w skomplikowana mieszanine uslug publicznych i prywatnych. Na podstawie swiadczen polozniczych, pokazuje, w jaki sposób prywatne uslugi zdrowotne staly sie "oknami" pozwalajacymi na subtelna selekcje pacjentów. Selekcja ta oparta jest na relacjach spolecznych nawiazywanych pomiedzy lekarzem/polozna a pacjentka przy okazji korzystania z prywatnych uslug i prowadzi do fragmentaryzacji opieki publicznej. Proces ten szczególnie negatywnie wplywa na kobiety, których zasoby spoleczne i finansowe nie pozwalaja na korzystanie z prywatnych uslug zdrowotnych.

Environmental stress and the quality of life connected with COVID-19 among people in Poland and the Netherlands.

OBJECTIVES: In addition to physical damage, COVID-19 also has a serious impact on the mental health of society. For many people, this involves the necessity of adapting to new conditions, uncertainty about the future and a tremendous mental burden. It was investigated whether there were any differences between the 2 measures (before and during the COVID-19 pandemic) in the levels of perceived stress, anxiety, life satisfaction and experienced emotions. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The study, conducted in Poland and the Netherlands, involved 168 people. The metric, the Positive and Negative Experience Scale, the Perceived Stress Scale, the and the Satisfaction With Life Scale were used. The subjects were divided into 3 groups: non-immigrants living in Poland (N = 50), Dutch citizens (N = 56), and Polish immigrants living in the Netherlands (N = 62). RESULTS: The level of stress and negative emotions was higher in the groups of Poles living in Poland and Poles living in the Netherlands than in the group of Dutch citizens. Therefore, access to psychological care should be improved during the pandemic, especially for immigrants, due to the increased risk of developing stress-induced mental disorders. CONCLUSIONS: In the groups of Poles, there was an increase in perceived stress and trait anxiety during the COVID-19 pandemic. The group of Dutch citizens experienced a reduction in the anxiety level during the COVID-19 pandemic. In the group of Polish immigrants, there was an increase in life satisfaction during the COVID-19 pandemic. Int J Occup Med Environ Health. 2021;34(2):177-88.

Prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 (Covid-19) in Italians and in immigrants in an area of Northern Italy (Reggio Emilia).

It has been hypothesized that bacille Calmette-Guerin (BCG), the anti-tuberculosis vaccine, can be protective against Covid-19. Using data of performed swabs and RT-PCR results for SARS-CoV-2 in the Reggio Emilia province (Emilia-Romagna Region, Northern Italy) from March 6th to March 26th, 2020, we computed age, gender, and place of birth (Italy or abroad) specific risk of being tested, prevalence of positive tests, and probability of testing positive given that a swab has been taken during the epidemic peak. We report that immigrants resident in Reggio Emilia province, mostly coming from Countries with high BCG vaccination coverage, and Italians had a similar prevalence of infection (odds ratio - OR 0.99; 95%CI 0.82-1.20) and similar probability of being tested (OR 0.93; 95%CI 0.81-1.10). Our data do not support the hypothesis that immigrants from Countries where BCG vaccination is recommended have a lower risk of Covid-19 infection.

Historical and modern research on propolis and its application in wound healing and other fields of medicine and contributions by Polish studies.

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE: The history of medical application of propolis (also known as bee glue) dates back to the times of ancient Greeks, Romans, Persians and Egyptians. Honey and other bee products, including propolis, occupy an important place in Polish folk medicine. Scientific research on propolis in Poland began in the early 1960s in Zabrze and continues until now. AIM OF THE REVIEW: The aim of this review is to provide an overview of information on Polish research on propolis and its medical application with particular emphasis on studies concerning wound healing. Consequently, our goal is also to shed a new light on therapeutic potential of Polish propolis in order to support future research in the field. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A systematic review of scientific literature on propolis and its medical application was performed by using the literature databases (PubMed, Web of Science, Google Scholar). We paid special attention to papers describing the effect of propolis on skin wound healing as well as to Polish contribution to research on propolis. RESULTS: Professor Stan Scheller was the first Polish scientist dealing with propolis and its medical potential. His legacy was continued by several research teams that studied the topic in various aspects. They analyzed propolis composition, its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiapoptotic and anticancer properties as well as its application in dentistry and wound treatment. Burn wound healing physiology after propolis administration was thoroughly studied on pig model, whereas research on patients proved the efficacy of propolis in chronic venous leg ulcer treatment. CONCLUSION: Polish scientists have made a significant contribution to the research on propolis, its biological properties and influence on wound healing. Propolis ointments can effectively accelerate the healing process and improve healing physiology, so they can be recommended as a promising topical medication for wound treatment in the future clinical and preclinical trials.

Immigration, acculturation, and preferred help-seeking sources for depression: comparison of five ethnic groups.

BACKGROUND: Immigrants are more likely than the majority population to have unmet needs for public mental health services. This study aims to understand potential ethnic differences in preferred help-seeking sources for depression in Norway, and how such preferences relate to acculturation orientation. METHODS: A convenience sample of immigrants from Russia (n = 164), Poland (n = 127), Pakistan (n = 128), and Somalia (n = 114), and Norwegian students (n = 250) completed a survey. The sample was recruited from social media platforms, emails, and direct contact. The survey consisted of a vignette describing a moderately depressed person. Respondents were asked to provide advice to the person by completing a modified version of the General Help-Seeking Questionnaire. The immigrant sample also responded to questions about acculturation orientation using the Vancouver Index of Acculturation Scale. RESULTS: Significant differences were found in the endorsement of traditional (e.g., religious leader), informal (e.g., family), and semiformal (e.g., internet forum) help-sources between immigrant groups, and between immigrant groups and the Norwegian respondent group. Immigrants from Pakistan and Somalia endorsed traditional help sources to a greater extent than immigrants from Russia and Poland, and the Norwegian student sample. There were no ethnic differences in endorsement of formal mental help sources (e.g., a medical doctor). Maintenance of the culture of origin as the acculturation orientation was associated with preferences for traditional and informal help sources, while the adoption of mainstream culture was associated with semiformal and formal help-seeking sources. CONCLUSION: Ethnic differences in help-seeking sources need to be considered when designing and implementing mental health services.

Parents' Concepts of the Successful School Child in Seven Western Cultures.

Although children's school success is a parental goal in most cultures, there is wide cultural variation in the qualities that parents most wish their children to develop for that purpose. A questionnaire contained forty-one child qualities was administered to 757 parents in seven cultural communities in Australia, Italy, the Netherlands, Poland, Spain, Sweden, and the United States. Exploratory factor analysis was conducted separately within each sample and results revealed both similarities and differences across the seven samples. The factor structures showed considerable similarity: four domains of characteristics (Cognitive Qualities, Social Qualities, Negative temperament, and Good Characters) were identified in each sample as strongly influencing children's success in school. However, parents differed across the seven cultural communities in the importance they attributed to these factors. The results also reveal some culturally unique patterns in parents' concepts of the successful schoolchild; the seven samples were differentiated by distinctive associations of individual qualities around the four common domains. These results offer new insights for incorporating perspectives from other cultures into our own concepts of what qualities are most important for children's success in school, and how educators can be cognizant of differing cultural perspectives represented by the families whose children are their students.

Corticosteroid therapy for the management of paradoxical inflammatory reaction in patients with pulmonary tuberculosis.

BACKGROUND: Paradoxical reaction after the initiation of tuberculosis treatment is defined as increased inflammation following effective antimycobacterial treatment. This is a phenomenon that can severely complicate a patient's recovery, potentially leading to further morbidity and residual deficits. Paradoxical reaction remains poorly understood regarding its pathophysiology and management. Only a limited number of reports look critically at the available therapeutic options, with evidence of the efficacy of prednisolone therapy being primarily limited to extrapulmonary PR only. CASE: We describe two HIV negative patients who were admitted to our department with pulmonary tuberculosis, presenting with inflammatory patterns attributable to PR and their response to adjunctive steroid therapy. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: The presented cases further highlight the need for immunological studies and randomized trials for corticosteroid therapy are needed to better understand this phenomenon as well as provide an evidence-base for anti-inflammatory treatment. Furthermore, by means of this case series, we are also able to highlight the potential variability in the symptomatology of the lesser known PR phenomenon, in which we observed a hypotensive shock-like syndrome not previously described in literature.

Comparing vaccination hesitancy in Polish migrant parents who accept or refuse nasal flu vaccination for their children.

This study investigates the background to low uptake of nasal influenza vaccination in Polish pupils in Edinburgh, Scotland. In autumn 2018, one week after their child's nasal flu vaccination sessions, 365 Polish parents were sent a questionnaire exploring influences on their vaccination choices. The questionnaire included a series of 10 vaccine hesitancy questions recommended by the WHO SAGE Working Group on Vaccine Hesitancy. 128 questionnaires were returned representing 43.4% of vaccinated, 41.9% of refusing and 23.8% of non-consent form returning parents. Responses highlighted concerns about side effects, new vaccines and the accuracy of professional advice and information sources. There was complacency expressed about vaccination against diseases that are not common any more. Vaccine refusers were consistently more negative about all aspects vaccination and more likely to answer 'don't know'. Almost half of refusers were uncertain about the quality of health information offered to them. Polish migrants in Scotland come with their beliefs about vaccination and modify these as they acculturate to the UK system. They also continue to be influenced by developments and opinions, norms and values from their home country, as well as diaspora media. We have highlighted issues of concern among Polish migrants as a group and gained additional insights by comparing responses of parents who have refused or accepted vaccination. These insights can inform and target messages and strategies to build confidence and encourage immunisation, which should lead to improved vaccine uptake among ethnic population groups.

Inscriptions on roadside memorials in Poland.

This paper focuses exclusively on inscriptions on roadside memorials. We conducted a review of studies of roadside memorial inscriptions and a field study of 29 inscriptions found on 156 roadside memorials in Poland to understand the similarities and differences between these inscriptions and those in other countries. The uniqueness of Polish inscriptions is their religious meaning. They reflect the inscription authors' and/or the deceased's relationship with Catholicism. We proposed a typology of inscriptions (limited and developed) that may be useful in further comparative studies on roadside memorialization.

Preferences and expectations among Polish women regarding prenatal screening.

OBJECTIVES: Patients' attitudes and expectations of prenatal screening for genetic abnormalities throughout pregnancy arerarely analyzed by researchers as emotions and fears are both important and challenging factors. Prenatal counselling hasnever been so difficult as we live in the era of detailed ultrasound scans, cell-free fetal DNA and detailed microarray testing.The aim of this study was to investigate Polish women's attitudes towards screening for chromosomal abnormalities andfetal defects. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The study was a prospective survey conducted among a population of Polish women. An electronicquestionnaire regarding prenatal diagnostics was distributed to a total number of 1072 female volunteers. RESULTS: 1044 patients (97.30%) stated that they were motivated to undergo prenatal diagnostics and would want to beinformed about fetal abnormalities. Over 90% of the respondents would want to be informed about serious defects witha high mortality rate (including trisomy 13 or 18). More than half the Polish women (54.83%) stated they were willing toconsider terminating pregnancy in the case of a severe abnormality. CONCLUSIONS: Polish women expect prenatal screening. Almost all Polish women would want to be informed about bothgenetic and anatomical abnormalities and over half of them would consider terminating pregnancy in the case of a severeabnormality. Willingness to learn about a defect increased with average household income, and the statement of a will toterminate pregnancy depended mostly on maternal age and type of fetal abnormality.

Knowledge and Beliefs of E-Cigarettes Among Physicians in Poland.

BACKGROUND Electronic nicotine delivery systems, including electronic cigarettes (e-cigarettes) are gaining popularity. The objectives of this study were to assess the knowledge and beliefs about e-cigarettes among physicians in Poland. MATERIAL AND METHODS A questionnaire-based survey was conducted among physicians attending mandatory courses delivered at the School of Public Health, Centre of Postgraduate Medical Education (Warsaw, Poland). The questionnaire included 24 questions concerning beliefs and attitudes about e-cigarettes. RESULTS Data were obtained from 412 physicians (64.3% females; aged 31.9±5.7 years) with a response rate of 82.4%. Among participants, 99.8% were aware of e-cigarettes. The main sources of information about e-cigarettes were: news stories (67.2%) or points of sale of e-cigarettes (67.6%). Approximately half of respondents (50.2%) declared moderate knowledge about e-cigarettes, and over three-quarters (78.1%) declared willingness to learn more about e-cigarettes. The majority (96.5%) of participants agreed with the statement that e-cigarette use is harmful to the user's health, and most (80.5%) agreed that exhaled e-cigarette aerosol is harmful to bystanders. The statement that e-cigarettes could be "gateway" to conventional smoking was supported by 87% of participants. Only 11.5% of physicians agreed that e-cigarettes should be recommended as a smoking cessation method. CONCLUSIONS Physicians in Poland perceive e-cigarettes as harmful and addictive. Physicians' knowledge about e-cigarettes is mostly based on non-scientific sources, which points out the urgent need to develop national smoking cessation guidelines regulating the issue of e-cigarettes based on scientific evidence.

Orthorexia nervosa, eating patterns and personality traits: a cross-cultural comparison of Italian, Polish and Spanish university students.

BACKGROUND: The amount of research about orthorexic attitudes and behaviours has increased in the last five years, but is still mainly based on descriptive and anecdotal data, yielding a variety of prevalence data and inconsistent results. The interplay between socio-cultural context and orthorexia has been poorly investigated and is still far from being understood. METHOD: Multicentre, cross-sectional study involving Italian (N = 216), Polish (N = 206) and Spanish (N = 242) university students, assessed through a protocol including informed consent, socio-demographic and anamnestic data sheet and self-administered questionnaires (ORTO-15, Eating Attitudes Test- 26 [EAT-26], Temperament and Character Inventory [TCI]). RESULTS: Higher prevalence of orthorexia (as described by the ORTO-15 cutoff) was found in Poland. Female gender, Body Mass Index (BMI), current Eating Disorder, dieting, EAT-26 score ≥ 20 and low/medium Persistence were associated with orthorexia in the whole sample. The cross-cultural comparison showed several differences among the three subgroups of students. CONCLUSIONS: The associations found between orthorexic attitudes, self-reported current eating disorder, BMI and adherence to a dieting need to be supported by further research. The differences among students from the three countries seem to suggest a possible rolve for cultural elements in the construct of orthorexia.

'I don't think anybody explained to me how it works': qualitative study exploring vaccination and primary health service access and uptake amongst Polish and Romanian communities in England.

OBJECTIVES: This study explored vaccination attitudes and behaviours among Polish and Romanian communities, and related access to primary healthcare services. DESIGN: A qualitative study using in-depth semistructured interviews with Polish and Romanian community members (CMs) and healthcare workers (HCWs) involved in vaccination in areas with large Polish and Romanian communities. CMs discussed their vaccination attitudes and their experiences of accessing vaccinations in England. HCWs shared their experiences in vaccinating Polish and Romanian communities. SETTING: Recruitment focused on three geographical areas in England with large Polish and Romanian populations (in London, Lincolnshire and Berkshire). PARTICIPANTS: 20 Polish and 10 Romanian CMs, and 20 HCWs. Most CMs were mothers or pregnant women and were recruited from London or Lincolnshire. HCWs included practice nurses, health visitors and school nurses recruited from the targeted geographical areas. RESULTS: Although most CMs reported vaccinating according to the UK schedule, obstacles to vaccination were highlighted. CMs experienced difficulties navigating and trusting the English primary healthcare system, and challenges in accessing credible vaccination information in Polish and Romanian. CM vaccination expectations, largely built on knowledge and experiences from Poland and Romania, were often unmet. This was driven by differences in vaccination scheduling and service provision in England, such as nurses delivering vaccines instead of doctors. CMs reported lower acceptance of the influenza vaccine, largely due to perceptions around the importance and efficacy of this vaccine. HCWs reported challenges translating and understanding vaccination histories, overcoming verbal communication barriers and ensuring vaccination schedule completeness among families travelling between England and Poland or Romania. CONCLUSIONS: This study identified vaccination uptake and delivery issues and recommendations for improvement. HCWs should discuss health service expectations, highlight differences in vaccination scheduling and delivery between countries, and promote greater understanding of the English primary healthcare system in order to encourage vaccination in these communities.

Expanding Personhood beyond Remembered Selves: The Sociality of Memory at an Alzheimer's Center in Poland.

Examining the social and processual dimensions of personhood can transform ethnographic and clinical understandings of "person-centered care" in dementia care specifically and in medicine more generally. Ethnographic research among people with early-stage Alzheimer's disease in a day center in Poznan, Poland, shows that practices of remembering involving collective memory can sustain personhood and foster ties of relatedness among people with dementia, defying some expectations about the destructive effects of dementia on personhood. This apparent paradox between people with dementia's loss of memory and their capacity to build social relations based on remembering can be resolved through expanding understandings of personhood to include practices of remembering involving collective pasts-in this case, through shared national frameworks and embodied practices of sociality. Attending to these two dimensions of collective memory reveals unexpected aspects of personhood among people with dementia.

Sleep quality and daytime sleepiness among Polish anaesthesiologists and intensivists.

PURPOSE: We aimed to investigate sleep quality (SQ), daytime sleepiness (DS), and their relation with subject- and work-related factors among Polish anaesthesiologists. METHODS: The study group comprised 786 anaesthesiologists. The Sleep Quality Scale (SQS) was applied in order to assess SQ, while excessive DS was evaluated using the Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS). RESULTS: The median score on the SQS was 31 (IQR 27-35) points. The median score on the ESS was 17 (IQR 13-20) points, with mild-to-moderate excessive DS found in 260 (33.1%) and severe excessive DS among 478 (60.8%) of those surveyed. Worse SQ was found in females; smokers; those who suffered from any chronic diseases; those who were receiving medication interfering with sleeping habits; those who were unsatisfied with their sleep; those who had a greater number of night shifts; and those who had a lower number of non-working days. A detrimental sleepiness pattern was determined by one's advanced age, the presence of any chronic diseases and lower satisfaction with one's sleep quantity. CONCLUSION: Poor SQ and excessive DS are frequently occurring phenomena. Since sleep disturbances are also related to the nature of their profession, the problem could be reduced by introducing organisational changes at work.

Pork politics: The scales of home-made food in Eastern Poland.

This paper examines how food practices and food narratives become tools of community building. It explores the politics of pork consumption and production in Eastern Poland, as embedded and enacted at various scales: homestead, family, gender relations, regional and national affinity as well as in EU and national levels. I draw on ethnographic research among the farming communities, where foodways are tied to ideas of home, work and locality. I find that pork politics takes on numerous forms there: discursive, as visible in the narratives of the symbolic value of pork to mark farmers' way of life; and performative and pragmatic, as visible in the practices of subsistence farming that immerse farmers' lives in food. I argue that all forms point to a creative response to being pushed into the "grey zone" of the state. Due to legislative and political obstacles, small-scale farmers in Eastern Poland withdraw into private sphere and barter, engage in informal food practices and take on ways of life associated with the past. In trying to uphold their status and moral worth, farmers retreat from official farming strategies, reject the values of modernity, equality and development as set out by the EU and become detached from the consumers. I propose that in the homesteads of Eastern Poland, functioning on the "borderland" of the state does not entail being excluded from politics.

Similarities in Color Preferences Between Women and Men: The Case of Hadza, the Hunter-Gatherers From Tanzania.

Evidence for cross-cultural patterns of sexual differences in color preferences raised the question of whether these preferences are determined by universal principles. To address this question, we investigated most- and least-favorite color choices in a nonindustrialized community, the Hadza that has an egalitarian hunter-gatherer culture, fundamentally different from those previously investigated. We also compared color preference patterns in the Hadza with published data from Poland and Papua. Our results show that Hadza have very different color preferences than Polish and Papuan Yali respondents. Unlike many industrialized and nonindustrialized cultures, Hadza color preferences are practically the same for women and men. These observations question the idea of universal differences of color preferences between sexes and raise important questions about the determinants of color preferences.