Cancer Screening after the Adoption of Paid-Sick-Leave Mandates.

BACKGROUND: By the end of 2022, nearly 20 million workers in the United States have gained paid-sick-leave coverage from mandates that require employers to provide benefits to qualified workers, including paid time off for the use of preventive services. Although the lack of paid-sick-leave coverage may hinder access to preventive care, current evidence is insufficient to draw meaningful conclusions about its relationship to cancer screening. METHODS: We examined the association between paid-sick-leave mandates and screening for breast and colorectal cancers by comparing changes in 12- and 24-month rates of colorectal-cancer screening and mammography between workers residing in metropolitan statistical areas (MSAs) that have been affected by paid-sick-leave mandates (exposed MSAs) and workers residing in unexposed MSAs. The comparisons were conducted with the use of administrative medical-claims data for approximately 2 million private-sector employees from 2012 through 2019. RESULTS: Paid-sick-leave mandates were present in 61 MSAs in our sample. Screening rates were similar in the exposed and unexposed MSAs before mandate adoption. In the adjusted analysis, cancer-screening rates were higher among workers residing in exposed MSAs than among those in unexposed MSAs by 1.31 percentage points (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.28 to 2.34) for 12-month colorectal cancer screening, 1.56 percentage points (95% CI, 0.33 to 2.79) for 24-month colorectal cancer screening, 1.22 percentage points (95% CI, -0.20 to 2.64) for 12-month mammography, and 2.07 percentage points (95% CI, 0.15 to 3.99) for 24-month mammography. CONCLUSIONS: In a sample of private-sector workers in the United States, cancer-screening rates were higher among those residing in MSAs exposed to paid-sick-leave mandates than among those residing in unexposed MSAs. Our results suggest that a lack of paid-sick-leave coverage presents a barrier to cancer screening. (Funded by the National Cancer Institute.).

Effects of non-pharmaceutical interventions on social distancing during the COVID-19 pandemic: Evidence from the 27 Brazilian states.

BACKGROUND: Despite substantial evidence on the effectiveness of non-pharmaceutical interventions (NPIs), there is still limited evidence on the individual effects of different types of NPIs on social distancing, especially in low- and middle-income countries. METHODS: We used panel data analysis to evaluate the effects of mandatory social distancing rules on social distancing. We obtained data on six different categories of mandatory restrictions implemented in Brazil, by date and state, from state government gazettes (diários oficiais). We then defined a social distancing rules index (SDI) to measure the strictness of social distancing rules, assigning each a value of 2, 1, or 0 depending on whether restrictions were full, partial, or very limited/non-existent at every given time. A separate variable was defined for masking mandates. We tested whether the following variables were associated to social distancing: SDI, masking mandates, COVID-19 incidence, population socioeconomic status, and political orientation. Data is for each day between March 11th and November 10th, 2020 in the 27 Brazilian states (N = 6615). FINDINGS: Social distancing increased when social distancing rules were stricter, and decreased when the use of face masks became mandatory. The effects of different types of restrictions varied: suspending in-person classes and gatherings, religious/sport/cultural activities had a greater effect than other types of restrictions. Also, the effect of social distancing rules on people's behaviour decreased over time, especially when rules were stricter. INTERPRETATION: Mandatory social distancing rules must be adopted to increase social distancing. Stricter rules have a higher impact, but result in decreased compliance over time. Policymakers should prioritize more targeted policies.

The Burden of Coronavirus Disease 2019-Related Cases, Hospitalizations, and Mortality Based on Vaccination Status and Mandated Mask Use: Statewide Data From Wisconsin and Narrative Review of the Literature.

BACKGROUND: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) cases continue to surge in the United States with the emergence of new variants. Statewide variability and inconsistency in implementing risk mitigation strategies are widespread, particularly in regards to enforcing mask mandates and encouraging the public to become fully vaccinated. METHODS: This is a cross-sectional study conducted on July 31, 2021, utilizing publicly available data from the Wisconsin Department of Health Services. The authors abstracted data on total COVID-19-related cases, hospitalizations, and deaths in the state of Wisconsin. The primary objective was comparison of total COVID-19-related cases, hospitalizations, and deaths in vaccinated versus unvaccinated people in the state of Wisconsin over a 31-day period (July 2021). Furthermore, we also performed a narrative review of the literature on COVID-19-related outcomes based on mask use and vaccination status. RESULTS: In the state of Wisconsin during July 2021, total COVID-19 cases was 125.4 per 100,000 fully vaccinated people versus 369.2 per 100,000 not fully vaccinated people (odds ratio [OR] = 0.34, 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.33-0.35; P < .001). Total COVID-19 hospitalizations was 4.9 per 100,000 fully vaccinated people versus 18.2 per 100,000 not fully vaccinated people (OR = 0.27, 98% CI, 0.22-0.32; P < .001). Total COVID-19 deaths was 0.1 per 100,000 fully vaccinated people versus 1.1 per 100,000 not fully vaccinated people (OR = 0.09, 95% CI, 0.03-0.29; P < .001). Narrative review of the literature demonstrated high vaccine effectiveness against COVID-19 infection prevention (79%-100% among fully vaccinated people), COVID-19-related hospitalization (87%-98% among fully vaccinated people), and COVID-19-related death (96.7%-98% among fully vaccinated people). Studies have also generally reported that mask use was associated with increased effectiveness in preventing COVID-19 infection ≤70%. CONCLUSIONS: Strict adherence to public mask use and fully vaccinated status are associated with improved COVID-19-related outcomes and can mitigate the spread, morbidity, and mortality of COVID-19. Anesthesiologists and intensivists should adhere to evidence-based guidelines in their approach and management of patients to help mitigate spread.

The Reemergence of Seasonal Respiratory Viruses in Houston, Texas, after Relaxing COVID-19 Restrictions.

Measures intended to limit the spread of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) virus at the start of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic resulted in a rapid decrease in other respiratory pathogens. Herein, we describe the trends of respiratory pathogens in a major metropolitan health care system central microbiology reference laboratory before and during the COVID-19 pandemic, with attention to when COVID-19 mitigation measures were implemented and relaxed. During the initial lockdown period, COVID-19 was the primary respiratory pathogen detected by multiplex respiratory panels. As COVID-19 containment measures were relaxed, the first non-COVID respiratory viruses to return to prepandemic levels were members of the rhinovirus/enterovirus family. After the complete removal of COVID-19 precautions at the state level, including an end to mask mandates, we observed the robust return of seasonal coronaviruses, parainfluenza virus, and respiratory syncytial virus. Inasmuch as COVID-19 has dominated the landscape of respiratory infections since early 2020, it is important for clinicians to recognize that the return of non-COVID respiratory pathogens may be rapid and significant when COVID-19 containment measures are removed. IMPORTANCE We describe the return of non-COVID respiratory viruses after the removal of COVID-19 mitigation measures. It is important for the public and physicians to recognize that, after months of COVID-19 being the primary driver of respiratory infection, more typical seasonal respiratory illnesses have returned, and this return is out of the normal season for some of these pathogens. Thus, clinicians and the public must now consider both COVID-19 and other respiratory illnesses when a patient presents with symptomatic respiratory illness.

Required and Voluntary Occupational Use of Hazard Controls for COVID-19 Prevention in Non-Health Care Workplaces - United States, June 2020.

Certain hazard controls, including physical barriers, cloth face masks, and other personal protective equipment (PPE), are recommended to reduce coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) transmission in the workplace (1). Evaluation of occupational hazard control use for COVID-19 prevention can identify inadequately protected workers and opportunities to improve use. CDC's National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health used data from the June 2020 SummerStyles survey to characterize required and voluntary use of COVID-19-related occupational hazard controls among U.S. non-health care workers. A survey-weighted regression model was used to estimate the association between employer provision of hazard controls and voluntary use, and stratum-specific adjusted risk differences (aRDs) among workers reporting household incomes <250% and ≥250% of national poverty thresholds were estimated to assess effect modification by income. Approximately one half (45.6%; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 41.0%-50.3%) of non-health care workers reported use of hazard controls in the workplace, 55.5% (95% CI = 48.8%-62.2%) of whom reported employer requirements to use them. After adjustment for occupational group and proximity to others at work, voluntary use was approximately double, or 22.3 absolute percentage points higher, among workers who were provided hazard controls than among those who were not. This effect was more apparent among lower-income (aRD = 31.0%) than among higher-income workers (aRD = 16.3%). Employers can help protect workers from COVID-19 by requiring and encouraging use of occupational hazard controls and providing hazard controls to employees (1).

Willingness to pay for private health insurance among workers with mandatory social health insurance in Mongolia.

BACKGROUND: High out-of-pocket health expenditure is a common problem in developing countries. The employed population, rather than the general population, can be considered the main contributor to healthcare financing in many developing countries. We investigated the feasibility of a parallel private health insurance package for the working population in Ulaanbaatar as a means toward universal health coverage in Mongolia. METHODS: This cross-sectional study used a purposive sampling method to collect primary data from workers in public and primary sectors in Ulaanbaatar. Willingness to pay (WTP) was evaluated using a contingent valuation method and a double-bounded dichotomous choice elicitation questionnaire. A final sample of 1657 workers was analyzed. Perceptions of current social health insurance were evaluated. To analyze WTP, we performed a 2-part model and computed the full marginal effects using both intensive and extensive margins. Disparities in WTP stratified by industry and gender were analyzed. RESULTS: Only < 40% of the participants were satisfied with the current mandatory social health insurance in Mongolia. Low quality of service was a major source of dissatisfaction. The predicted WTP for the parallel private health insurance for men and women was Mongolian Tugrik (₮)16,369 (p < 0.001) and ₮16,661 (p < 0.001), respectively, accounting for approximately 2.4% of the median or 1.7% of the average salary in the country. The highest predicted WTP was found for workers from the education industry (₮22,675, SE = 3346). Income and past or current medical expenditures were significantly associated with WTP. CONCLUSION: To reduce out-of-pocket health expenditure among the working population in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, supplementary parallel health insurance is feasible given the predicted WTP. However, given high variations among different industries and sectors, different incentives may be required for participation.

State-Level Stay-at-Home Orders and Objectively Measured Movement in the United States During the COVID-19 Pandemic.

OBJECTIVE: Social distancing has been one of the primary interventions used to slow the spread of COVID-19 during the ongoing pandemic. Although statewide stay-at-home orders in the United States received a large degree of media and political attention, relatively little peer-reviewed research has examined the impacts of such orders on social distancing behaviors. METHOD: This study used daily GPS-derived movement from 2858 counties in the United States from March 1 to May 7, 2020, to test the degree to which changes in state-level stay-at-home orders were associated with movement outside the home. RESULTS: From early March to early April, people in counties with state-level stay-at-home orders decreased their movement significantly more than counties without state-level stay-at-home orders; 3.1% more people stayed within 1 mile of home, and 1.6% fewer vehicle miles were driven per day. From early April to early May, people in counties within states that ended their stay-at-home orders increased their movement significantly more than counties in states whose stay-at-home orders remained in place; 1.2% fewer people remained within 1 mile of home, and 6.2% more vehicle miles were driven per day. The magnitude of changes associated with state-level stay-at-home orders was many times smaller than the total changes in movement across all counties over the same periods. CONCLUSIONS: Stay-at-home orders were associated with greater social distancing but accounted for only part of this behavioral change. Research on behavior change would be useful to determine additional interventions that could support social distancing during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Adherence to physical contact restriction measures and the spread of COVID-19 in Brazil. / Adesão às medidas de restrição de contato físico e disseminação da COVID-19 no Brasil.

OBJECTIVE: To analyze the adherence of the population to physical contact restriction measures and the spread of COVID-19 in Brazil. METHODS: This was a web-based health survey carried out from April 24 to May 24 2020 using a chain sampling procedure. Intensity of adherence to physical contact restriction measures was analyzed according to sociodemographic characteristics, using logistic regression models to investigate associations with 'No/little adherence'. RESULTS: Of the 45,161 participants, 74.2% (73.8;74.6%) reported intense adherence to the measures. The group that did not adhere to the measures was characterized by men (31.7%), those aged 30 to 49 (36.4%), those with low education levels (33.0%), those who worked during the pandemic (81.3%), those resident in the North (28.1%) and Midwest (28.5%) regions of the country. In Brazil as a whole, there was a decrease in COVID-19 daily growth rates, from 45.4% to 5.0%. CONCLUSION: A large part of the Brazilian population adhered to physical contact restriction measures, which possibly contributed to decreasing the spread of COVID-19.

Social and behavioral consequences of mask policies during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Mandatory and voluntary mask policies may have yet unknown social and behavioral consequences related to the effectiveness of the measure, stigmatization, and perceived fairness. Serial cross-sectional data (April 14 to May 26, 2020) from nearly 7,000 German participants demonstrate that implementing a mandatory policy increased actual compliance despite moderate acceptance; mask wearing correlated positively with other protective behaviors. A preregistered experiment (n = 925) further indicates that a voluntary policy would likely lead to insufficient compliance, would be perceived as less fair, and could intensify stigmatization. A mandatory policy appears to be an effective, fair, and socially responsible solution to curb transmissions of airborne viruses.

Autism Insurance Mandates in the US: Comparison of Mandated Commercial Insurance Benefits Across States.

INTRODUCTION: Autism mandates are laws that require commercial insurers to cover certain evidence-based treatments for Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). The purpose of this study was to review state variability in autism insurance mandates and the benefits they cover and to discuss recommendations for research and policy to improve ASD services across states. METHODS: Data were extracted from 2001 to 2020 from all 50 states plus the District of Columbia (N = 51) from policy text. News articles and websites of ASD advocacy organizations were also reviewed to ensure inclusion of the most recent policy changes. Descriptive statistics and heatmaps were used to characterize the autism mandate landscape and visualize variability in benefit parameters across states. RESULTS: Autism mandates vary greatly in benefit parameters across US states, but there is a common set of benefits that most states have adopted. These include coverage of provider-recommended ASD services except for medical equipment, coverage up to an age limit of 18 to 21, an annual dollar limit of $36,000 with no restriction on the number of hours or visits, no lifetime cap on benefits, and requirement of BCBA® certification or its equivalent for providers of ABA. DISCUSSION: There is a need for continued research evaluating the impact of autism mandates and benefit parameters on access to care, service utilization, and clinical outcomes for the ASD population. Stakeholder engagement and understanding the impact of autism mandates on clinical and patient-centered outcomes may provide direction for policy advocacy and public health initiatives.

An evaluation of the practice of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) in a Victorian health service before and after the Mental Health Act 2014.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of the project was to identify changes in the practice of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) in a metropolitan mental health service before and after the Mental Health Act 2014 (2014 Act) in Victoria. METHOD: Retrospective clinical file audit of ECT administration across all three sites at Eastern Health (EH) two years before and two years after introduction of the 2014 Act. RESULTS: There was a statistically significant decrease in the number of compulsory ECT treatments and in the number of patients who had compulsory ECT across the three hospitals at EH in the two years following the 2014 Act compared to the two years prior to the 2014 Act. There was no significant difference in the number of voluntary ECT treatments and in the number of patients who had voluntary ECT. CONCLUSION: The review showed that there has been a significant decrease in the number of compulsory ECT treatments and in the number of patients who had compulsory ECT after the introduction of the 2014 Act. Potential reasons for the changes are discussed.

Mandatory Vaccination in Europe.

BACKGROUND: Mandatory vaccination has been effective in maintaining high vaccination coverage in countries such as the United States. However, there are no peer-reviewed analyses of the association between mandates and both coverage and subsequent incidence of vaccine-preventable disease in Europe. METHODS: Using data from the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control and the World Health Organization, we evaluated the relationship between country-level mandatory vaccination policies and (1) measles and pertussis vaccine coverage and (2) the annual incidence of these diseases in 29 European countries. Multivariate negative binomial and linear regression models were used to quantify these associations. RESULTS: Mandatory vaccination was associated with a 3.71 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.68 to 5.74) percentage point higher prevalence of measles vaccination and a 2.14 (95% CI: 0.13 to 4.15) percentage point higher prevalence of pertussis vaccination when compared with countries that did not have mandatory vaccination. Mandatory vaccination was only associated with decreased measles incidence for countries without nonmedical exemptions (adjusted incidence rate ratio = 0.14; 95% CI: 0.05 to 0.36). We did not find a significant association between mandatory vaccination and pertussis incidence. CONCLUSIONS: Mandatory vaccination and the magnitude of fines were associated with higher vaccination coverage. Moreover, mandatory vaccination was associated with lower measles incidence for countries with mandatory vaccination without nonmedical exemptions. These findings can inform legislative policies aimed at increasing vaccination coverage.

Impact of the Healthcare System, Macro Indicator, General Mandatory Quarantine, and Mask Obligation on COVID-19 Cases and Death in Six Latin American Countries: An Interrupted Time Series Study.

Background: Different coping strategies have been implemented by various governments worldwide to address the emerging health crisis of COVID-19. While most developed countries count on supporting healthcare and social systems, developing countries face additional challenges due to low macro indicators. The implementation of measurements such as quarantine are shown to be successful to flatten the curve of infection and death. In this context, it is important to test whether those measurements have an impact on the distribution of cases of COVID-19 in developing countries that face additional challenges such as lack of social security due to informal employment. A country comparison for Colombia, Costa Rica, Peru, Ecuador, Mexico, and Chile has therefore been conducted. Method: The healthcare systems and macro indicator as well as the distribution of death due to COVID-19 per thousand inhabitants are compared descriptively. Using Multiple Interrupted Time Series Analysis with synthetic control units the impact of the General Mandatory Quarantine in Colombia, Peru, and Ecuador as well as the impact of Mask Obligation in public in Colombia and Chile have been tested. Results: No clear impact of the poverty headcount ratio at the national poverty line and urban population on the percentage of death within the confirmed cases has been found. The out-of-pocked spending within health expenditure as a barrier in access to healthcare can be considered as a determinant of death within the confirmed cases of COVID-19. The implementation of a general mandatory quarantine did not show a curve-flattening effect in Ecuador and Peru but did so in Colombia. The implementation of Mask obligation in public spaced showed positive impact on the distribution of confirmed case in both countries tested. Conclusion: The implementation of a general mandatory quarantine does not guarantee the curve-flattening effect. Various macro indicators should therefore always be considered while analyzing the effect of policies.

Efficacy of compulsory community treatment and use in minority ethnic populations: A statewide cohort study.

BACKGROUND: There is conflicting and equivocal evidence for the efficacy of compulsory community treatment within Australia and overseas, but no study from Queensland. In addition, although people from Indigenous or culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds are over-represented in compulsory admissions to hospital, little is known about whether this also applies to compulsory community treatment. AIMS: We initially investigated whether people from Indigenous or culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds in terms of country of birth, or preferred language, were more likely to be on compulsory community treatment using statewide databases from Queensland. We then assessed the impact of compulsory community treatment on health service use over the following 12 months. Compulsory community treatment included both community treatment orders and forensic orders. METHODS: Cases and controls from administrative health data were matched on age, sex, diagnosis and time of hospital discharge (the index date). Multivariate analyses were used to examine potential predictors of compulsory community treatment, as well as impact on bed-days, time to readmission or contacts with public mental health services in the subsequent year. RESULTS: We identified 7432 cases and controls from January 2013 to February 2017 (total n = 14,864). Compulsory community treatment was more likely in Indigenous Queenslanders (adjusted odds ratio = 1.45; 95% confidence interval = [1.28, 1.65]) subjects coming from a culturally and linguistically diverse background (adjusted odds ratio = 1.54; 95% confidence interval = [1.37, 1.72]), or those who had a preferred language other than English (adjusted odds ratio = 1.66; 95% confidence interval = [1.30, 2.11]). While community contacts were significantly greater in patients on compulsory community treatment, there was no difference in bed-days while time to readmission was shorter. Restricting the analyses to just community treatment orders did not alter these results. CONCLUSION: In common with other coercive treatments, Indigenous Australians and people from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds are more likely to be placed on compulsory community treatment. The evidence for effectiveness remains inconclusive.

Insurance Coverage Criteria for Bariatric Surgery: A Survey of Policies.

BACKGROUND: Bariatric surgery remains underutilized at a national scale, and insurance company reimbursement is an important determinant of access to these procedures. We examined the current state of coverage criteria for bariatric surgery set by private insurance companies. METHODS: We surveyed medical policies of the 64 highest market share health insurance providers in the USA. ASMBS guidelines and the CMS criteria for pre-bariatric evaluation were used to collect private insurer coverage criteria, which included procedures covered, age, BMI, co-morbidities, medical weight management program (MWM), psychosocial evaluation, and a center of excellence designation. We derive a comprehensive checklist for pre-bariatric patient evaluation. RESULTS: Sixty-one companies (95%) had defined pre-authorization policies. All policies covered the RYGB, and 57 (93%) covered the LAGB or the SG. Procedures had coverage limited to center of excellence in 43% of policies (n = 26). A total of 92% required a BMI of 40 or above or of 35 or above with a co-morbidity; however, 43% (n = 23) of policies covering adolescents (n = 36) had a higher BMI requirement of 40 or above with a co-morbidity. Additional evaluation was required in the majority of policies (MWM 87%, psychosocial evaluation 75%). Revision procedures were covered in 79% (n = 48) of policies. Reimbursement of a second bariatric procedure for failure of weight loss was less frequently found (n = 41, 67%). CONCLUSIONS: A majority of private insurers still require a supervised medical weight management program prior to approval, and most will not cover adolescent bariatric surgery unless certain criteria, which are not supported by current evidence, are met.

A Swedish national study: Immigrant-country of birth status and child welfare compulsory care among a sample of parents with risky substance use.

BACKGROUND: Sweden has a high percentage of foreign-born residents (18.5 %) and one of the highest overdose death rates in Europe. For immigrant parents with risky substance use (RSU), risk factors associated with immigration status (e.g., economic strain and psychological stress) potentially heightening the risk of involvement with the child welfare system (CWS). Using Swedish registry national data, this study explored the relationship between immigration-country of birth status, psychosocial risk factors, and child compulsory care for parents with RSU. METHODS: Study sample consisted of 5932 parents from 65 Swedish municipalities assessed for psychosocial problems (including alcohol and drug use) using the Addiction Severity Index (2007-2017). Stepwise multinomial logistic regression models examined the relationship between immigration-country of birth status (Swedish born, Nordic-born, and non-Nordic born), psychosocial problems, and compulsory care in the CWS. RESULTS: Compared to Swedish-born parents, parents not born in Sweden, Norway, Denmark or Finland (non-Nordic born parents) had a lower probability of children living in compulsory care (family homes or institutions). However, after accounting for psychosocial problems, immigration status was no longer significantly associated with children's living arrangements. CONCLUSIONS: Study findings indicate that parental immigrant status (even among parents dealing with RSU) in itself is not a risk factor for compulsory care in the CWS. Moreover, parental employment and health problems posed greater risk for children being in compulsory care. Receipt of targeted services for employment and health problems may help to maintain stable child living arrangements for immigrant parents dealing with RSU.

State criminal justice policy context and opioid agonist treatment delivery among opioid treatment admissions, 2015.

BACKGROUND: Criminal justice referral to treatment is associated with reduced odds of receiving opioid agonist treatment (OAT), the gold-standard treatment for opioid use disorder. States vary substantially in the extent of criminal justice system involvement in opioid treatment; however, the effects on treatment provision are not clear. We examined whether state-level criminal justice involvement in the substance use treatment system modified the association between criminal justice referral to treatment and OAT provision among opioid treatment admissions. METHODS: We conducted a random effects logistic regression to investigate how the effects of criminal justice referral to treatment on OAT provision differed in states with high vs. low state-level criminal justice involvement in opioid treatment, adjusting for individual and state-level covariates, among 22 states in the 2015 Treatment Episode Dataset-Admissions. RESULTS: Criminal justice referral to treatment was associated with an 85% reduction in the odds of receiving OAT, compared to other sources of treatment referral (OR = 0.15; 95% CI: 0.15, 0.16). Among opioid treatment admissions resulting from criminal justice referral in 2015, receiving treatment in high criminal justice involvement states was associated with a 63% reduction in the odds of OAT provision, compared to opioid treatment received in low criminal justice involvement states (interaction OR = 0.37, 95% CI: 0.11, 0.89). CONCLUSION: The effects of criminal justice referral to treatment on OAT provision varied by criminal justice involvement in opioid treatment at the state level. Targeted interventions should increase access to OAT in states that rely on the criminal justice system for opioid treatment referrals.

Community treatment orders in Western Switzerland: A retrospective epidemiological study.

PURPOSE: Community treatment orders (CTOs) are legal procedures that authorise compulsory community mental health care to people affected by severe mental disorders. Nowadays, CTOs are regulated in 75 countries, with important variations in terms of legal criteria and practices. In Switzerland CTOs were introduced on the 1st January 2013, following the amendment of the Swiss Civil Code. The aim of this study was to provide a first understanding of the use of CTOs in Western Switzerland in terms of incidence and prevalence rates, population profile, orders duration and reasons for discharge. METHODS: Incidence and prevalence rates of CTOs between 2013 and 2017 were estimated. Survival analysis was used to investigate time to CTO discharge and associated factors. Logistic regression was performed to identify factors associated with CTOs' success as reason for discharge. RESULTS: CTOs' incidence rates per 100'000 inhabitants ranged between 4.8 for 2013 and 9.6 for 2017, while their prevalence raised from 4.8 to 19.5. People placed under CTO were mainly male, in their forties, of Swiss origin, single and living independently. Primarily affected by Schizophrenia, schizotypal and delusional disorders (F20-F29), they frequently presented substance use problems, and severe danger for themselves. CTOs were mainly ordered by the guardianship authority as a form of conditional release. The estimated mean time to discharge was almost three years. Not being of Swiss origin and being prescribed to take a medication were associated with longer CTO while living in hospital, as a consequence of a long-lasting hospitalisation, and having a non-medical professional in charge of the order were associated with shorter time to discharge. Neither clinical factors nor legal criteria predicted time to discharge. Moreover, spending more days under CTO increased the likelihood of success at discharge, whereas not being of Swiss origin reduced it. CONCLUSIONS: To the best of our knowledge, no previous studies have examined the CTOs' implementation in Switzerland. CTOs prevalence increased rapidly despite the lack of evidence on positive outcomes. Our results suggested that once under CTO, it takes a long time for a patient to be released, in case of both positive and negative outcomes.