Transcriptome- and proteome-wide effects of a circular RNA encompassing four early exons of the spinal muscular atrophy genes.

Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) genes, SMN1 and SMN2 (hereinafter referred to as SMN1/2), produce multiple circular RNAs (circRNAs), including C2A-2B-3-4 that encompasses early exons 2A, 2B, 3 and 4. C2A-2B-3-4 is a universally and abundantly expressed circRNA of SMN1/2. Here we report the transcriptome- and proteome-wide effects of overexpression of C2A-2B-3-4 in inducible HEK293 cells. Our RNA-Seq analysis revealed altered expression of ~ 15% genes (4172 genes) by C2A-2B-3-4. About half of the affected genes by C2A-2B-3-4 remained unaffected by L2A-2B-3-4, a linear transcript encompassing exons 2A, 2B, 3 and 4 of SMN1/2. These findings underscore the unique role of the structural context of C2A-2B-3-4 in gene regulation. A surprisingly high number of upregulated genes by C2A-2B-3-4 were located on chromosomes 4 and 7, whereas many of the downregulated genes were located on chromosomes 10 and X. Supporting a cross-regulation of SMN1/2 transcripts, C2A-2B-3-4 and L2A-2B-3-4 upregulated and downregulated SMN1/2 mRNAs, respectively. Proteome analysis revealed 61 upregulated and 57 downregulated proteins by C2A-2B-3-4 with very limited overlap with those affected by L2A-2B-3-4. Independent validations confirmed the effect of C2A-2B-3-4 on expression of genes associated with chromatin remodeling, transcription, spliceosome function, ribosome biogenesis, lipid metabolism, cytoskeletal formation, cell proliferation and neuromuscular junction formation. Our findings reveal a broad role of C2A-2B-3-4, and expands our understanding of functions of SMN1/2 genes.

Efficient systemic CNS delivery of a therapeutic antisense oligonucleotide with a blood-brain barrier-penetrating ApoE-derived peptide.

Antisense oligonucleotide (ASO) has emerged as a promising therapeutic approach for treating central nervous system (CNS) disorders by modulating gene expression with high selectivity and specificity. However, the poor permeability of ASO across the blood-brain barrier (BBB) diminishes its therapeutic success. Here, we designed and synthesized a series of BBB-penetrating peptides (BPP) derived from either the receptor-binding domain of apolipoprotein E (ApoE) or a transferrin receptor-binding peptide (THR). The BPPs were conjugated to phosphorodiamidate morpholino oligomers (PMO) that are chemically analogous to the 2'-O-(2-methoxyethyl) (MOE)-modified ASO approved by the FDA for treating spinal muscular atrophy (SMA). The BPP-PMO conjugates significantly increased the level of full-length SMN2 in the patient-derived SMA fibroblasts in a concentration-dependent manner with minimal to no toxicity. Furthermore, the systemic administration of the most potent BPP-PMO conjugates significantly increased the expression of full-length SMN2 in the brain and spinal cord of SMN2 transgenic adult mice. Notably, BPP8-PMO conjugate showed a 1.25-fold increase in the expression of full-length functional SMN2 in the brain. Fluorescence imaging studies confirmed that 78% of the fluorescently (Cy7)-labelled BPP8-PMO reached brain parenchyma, with 11% uptake in neuronal cells. Additionally, the BPP-PMO conjugates containing retro-inverso (RI) D-BPPs were found to possess extended half-lives compared to their L-counterparts, indicating increased stability against protease degradation while preserving the bioactivity. This delivery platform based on BPP enhances the CNS bioavailability of PMO targeting the SMN2 gene, paving the way for the development of systemically administered neurotherapeutics for CNS disorders.

The diversity of splicing modifiers acting on A-1 bulged 5'-splice sites reveals rules for rational drug design.

Pharmacological modulation of RNA splicing by small molecules is an emerging facet of drug discovery. In this context, the SMN2 splicing modifier SMN-C5 was used as a prototype to understand the mode of action of small molecule splicing modifiers and propose the concept of 5'-splice site bulge repair. In this study, we combined in vitro binding assays and structure determination by NMR spectroscopy to identify the binding modes of four other small molecule splicing modifiers that switch the splicing of either the SMN2 or the HTT gene. Here, we determined the solution structures of risdiplam, branaplam, SMN-CX and SMN-CY bound to the intermolecular RNA helix epitope containing an unpaired adenine within the G-2A-1G+1U+2 motif of the 5'-splice site. Despite notable differences in their scaffolds, risdiplam, SMN-CX, SMN-CY and branaplam contact the RNA epitope similarly to SMN-C5, suggesting that the 5'-splice site bulge repair mechanism can be generalised. These findings not only deepen our understanding of the chemical diversity of splicing modifiers that target A-1 bulged 5'-splice sites, but also identify common pharmacophores required for modulating 5'-splice site selection with small molecules.

A super minigene with a short promoter and truncated introns recapitulates essential features of transcription and splicing regulation of the SMN1 and SMN2 genes.

Here we report a Survival Motor Neuron 2 (SMN2) super minigene, SMN2Sup, encompassing its own promoter, all exons, their flanking intronic sequences and the entire 3'-untranslated region. We confirm that the pre-mRNA generated from SMN2Sup undergoes splicing to produce a translation-competent mRNA. We demonstrate that mRNA generated from SMN2Sup produces more SMN than an identical mRNA generated from a cDNA clone. We uncover that overexpression of SMN triggers skipping of exon 3 of SMN1/SMN2. We define the minimal promoter and regulatory elements associated with the initiation and elongation of transcription of SMN2. The shortened introns within SMN2Sup preserved the ability of camptothecin, a transcription elongation inhibitor, to induce skipping of exons 3 and 7 of SMN2. We show that intron 1-retained transcripts undergo nonsense-mediated decay. We demonstrate that splicing factor SRSF3 and DNA/RNA helicase DHX9 regulate splicing of multiple exons in the context of both SMN2Sup and endogenous SMN1/SMN2. Prevention of SMN2 exon 7 skipping has implications for the treatment of spinal muscular atrophy (SMA). We validate the utility of the super minigene in monitoring SMN levels upon splicing correction. Finally, we demonstrate how the super minigene could be employed to capture the cell type-specific effects of a pathogenic SMN1 mutation.

Diverse targets of SMN2-directed splicing-modulating small molecule therapeutics for spinal muscular atrophy.

Designing an RNA-interacting molecule that displays high therapeutic efficacy while retaining specificity within a broad concentration range remains a challenging task. Risdiplam is an FDA-approved small molecule for the treatment of spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), the leading genetic cause of infant mortality. Branaplam is another small molecule which has undergone clinical trials. The therapeutic merit of both compounds is based on their ability to restore body-wide inclusion of Survival Motor Neuron 2 (SMN2) exon 7 upon oral administration. Here we compare the transcriptome-wide off-target effects of these compounds in SMA patient cells. We captured concentration-dependent compound-specific changes, including aberrant expression of genes associated with DNA replication, cell cycle, RNA metabolism, cell signaling and metabolic pathways. Both compounds triggered massive perturbations of splicing events, inducing off-target exon inclusion, exon skipping, intron retention, intron removal and alternative splice site usage. Our results of minigenes expressed in HeLa cells provide mechanistic insights into how these molecules targeted towards a single gene produce different off-target effects. We show the advantages of combined treatments with low doses of risdiplam and branaplam. Our findings are instructive for devising better dosing regimens as well as for developing the next generation of small molecule therapeutics aimed at splicing modulation.

Structure and function analysis of Sam68 and hnRNP A1 synergy in the exclusion of exon 7 from SMN2 transcripts.

Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is a neurodegenerative disease caused by the absence of a functional copy of the Survival of Motor Neuron 1 gene (SMN1). The nearly identical paralog, SMN2, cannot compensate for the loss of SMN1 because exon 7 is aberrantly skipped from most SMN2 transcripts, a process mediated by synergistic activities of Src-associated during mitosis, 68 kDa (Sam68/KHDRBS1) and heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein (hnRNP) A1. This results in the production of a truncated, nonfunctional protein that is rapidly degraded. Here, we present several crystal structures of Sam68 RNA-binding domain (RBD). Sam68-RBD forms stable symmetric homodimers by antiparallel association of helices α3 from two monomers. However, the details of domain organization and the dimerization interface differ significantly from previously characterized homologs. We demonstrate that Sam68 and hnRNP A1 can simultaneously bind proximal motifs within the central region of SMN2 (ex7). Furthermore, we show that the RNA-binding pockets of the two proteins are close to each other in their heterodimeric complex and identify contact residues using crosslinking-mass spectrometry. We present a model of the ternary Sam68·SMN2 (ex7)·hnRNP A1 complex that reconciles all available information on SMN1/2 splicing. Our findings have important implications for the etiology of SMA and open new avenues for the design of novel therapeutics to treat splicing diseases.

Revealing diverse alternative splicing variants of the highly homologous SMN1 and SMN2 genes by targeted long-read sequencing.

The survival of motor neuron (SMN) genes, SMN1 and SMN2, are two highly homologous genes related to spinal muscular atrophy (SMA). Different patterns of alternative splicing have been observed in the SMN genes. In this study, the long-read sequencing technique for distinguishing SMN1 and SMN2 without any assembly were developed and applied to reveal multiple alternative splicing patterns and to comprehensively identify transcript variants of the SMN genes. In total, 36 types of transcript variants were identified, with an equal number of variants generated from both SMN1 and SMN2. Of these, 18 were novel SMN transcripts that have never been reported. The structures of SMN transcripts were revealed to be much more complicated and diverse than previously discovered. These novel transcripts were derived from diverse splicing events, including skipping of one or more exons, intron retention, and exon shortening or addition. SMN1 mainly produces FL-SMN1, SMN1Δ7, SMN1Δ5 and SMN1Δ3. The distribution of SMN2 transcripts was significantly different from those of SMN1, with the majority transcripts to be SMN2Δ7, followed by FL-SMN2, SMN2Δ3,5 and SMN2Δ5,7. Targeted long-read sequencing approach could accurately distinguish sequences of SMN1 from those of SMN2. Our study comprehensively addressed naturally occurring SMN1 and SMN2 transcript variants and splicing patterns in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). The novel transcripts identified in our study expanded knowledge of the diversity of transcript variants generated from the SMN genes and showed a much more comprehensive profile of the SMN splicing spectrum. Results in our study will provide valuable information for the study of low expression level of SMN proteins and SMA pathogenesis based on transcript levels.

Antisense Oligonucleotide Induction of the hnRNPA1b Isoform Affects Pre-mRNA Splicing of SMN2 in SMA Type I Fibroblasts.

Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is a severe, debilitating neuromuscular condition characterised by loss of motor neurons and progressive muscle wasting. SMA is caused by a loss of expression of SMN1 that encodes the survival motor neuron (SMN) protein necessary for the survival of motor neurons. Restoration of SMN expression through increased inclusion of SMN2 exon 7 is known to ameliorate symptoms in SMA patients. As a consequence, regulation of pre-mRNA splicing of SMN2 could provide a potential molecular therapy for SMA. In this study, we explored if splice switching antisense oligonucleotides could redirect the splicing repressor hnRNPA1 to the hnRNPA1b isoform and restore SMN expression in fibroblasts from a type I SMA patient. Antisense oligonucleotides (AOs) were designed to promote exon 7b retention in the mature mRNA and induce the hnRNPA1b isoform. RT-PCR and western blot analysis were used to assess and monitor the efficiency of different AO combinations. A combination of AOs targeting multiple silencing motifs in hnRNPA1 pre-mRNA led to robust hnRNPA1b induction, which, in turn, significantly increased expression of full-length SMN (FL-SMN) protein. A combination of PMOs targeting the same motifs also strongly induced hnRNPA1b isoform, but surprisingly SMN2 exon 5 skipping was detected, and the PMO cocktail did not lead to a significant increase in expression of FL-SMN protein. We further performed RNA sequencing to assess the genome-wide effects of hnRNPA1b induction. Some 3244 genes were differentially expressed between the hnRNPA1b-induced and untreated SMA fibroblasts, which are functionally enriched in cell cycle and chromosome segregation processes. RT-PCR analysis demonstrated that expression of the master regulator of these enrichment pathways, MYBL2 and FOXM1B, were reduced in response to PMO treatment. These findings suggested that induction of hnRNPA1b can promote SMN protein expression, but not at sufficient levels to be clinically relevant.

High Concentration or Combined Treatment of Antisense Oligonucleotides for Spinal Muscular Atrophy Perturbed SMN2 Splicing in Patient Fibroblasts.

Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is caused by survival motor neuron 1 SMN1 deletion. The survival motor neuron 2 (SMN2) encodes the same protein as SMN1 does, but it has a splicing defect of exon 7. Some antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) have been proven to correct this defect. One of these, nusinersen, is effective in SMA-affected infants, but not as much so in advanced-stage patients. Furthermore, the current regimen may exhibit a ceiling effect. To overcome these problems, high-dose ASOs or combined ASOs have been explored. Here, using SMA fibroblasts, we examined the effects of high-concentration ASOs and of combining two ASOs. Three ASOs were examined: one targeting intronic splicing suppressor site N1 (ISS-N1) in intron 7, and two others targeting the 3' splice site and 5' region of exon 8. In our experiments on all ASO types, a low or intermediate concentration (50 or 100 nM) showed better splicing efficiency than a high concentration (200 nM). In addition, a high concentration of each ASO created a cryptic exon in exon 6. When a mixture of two different ASOs (100 nM each) was added to the cells, the cryptic exon was included in the mRNA. In conclusion, ASOs at a high concentration or used in combination may show less splicing correction and cryptic exon creation.

Heat increases full-length SMN splicing: promise for splice-augmenting therapies for SMA.

Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is a debilitating neurodegenerative pediatric disease characterized by low levels of the survival motor protein (SMN). Humans have two SMN genes that produce identical SMN proteins, but they differ at a key nucleotide in exon 7 that induces differential mRNA splicing. SMN1 primarily produces full-length SMN protein, but due to the spliceosome's inability to efficiently recognize exon 7, SMN2 transcripts are often truncated. SMA occurs primarily through mutations or deletions in the SMN1 gene; therefore, current therapies use antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) to target exon 7 inclusion in SMN2 mRNA and promote full-length SMN protein production. Here, we explore additional methods that can target SMN splicing and therapeutically increase full-length SMN protein. We demonstrate that in vitro heat treatment of cells increases exon 7 inclusion and relative abundance of full-length SMN2 mRNA and protein, a response that is modulated through the upregulation of the positive splicing factor TRA2 beta. We also observe that HSP90, but not HSP40 or HSP70, in the heat shock response is essential for SMN2 exon 7 splicing under hyperthermic conditions. Finally, we show that pulsatile heat treatments for one hour in vitro and in vivo are effective in increasing full-length SMN2 levels. These findings suggest that timed interval treatments could be a therapeutic alternative for SMA patients who do not respond to current ASO-based therapies or require a unique combination regimen.

Addressing Today's Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, and Excretion (ADME) Challenges in the Translation of In Vitro ADME Characteristics to Humans: A Case Study of the SMN2 mRNA Splicing Modifier Risdiplam.

Small molecules that present complex absorption, distribution, metabolism, and elimination (ADME) properties can be challenging to investigate as potential therapeutics. Acquiring data through standard methods can yield results that are insufficient to describe the in vivo situation, which can affect downstream development decisions. Implementing in vitro-in vivo-in silico strategies throughout the drug development process is effective in identifying and mitigating risks while speeding up their development. Risdiplam (Evrysdi)-an orally bioavailable, small molecule approved by the US Food and Drug Administration and more recently by the European Medicines Agency for the treatment of patients ≥2 months of age with spinal muscular atrophy-is presented here as a case study. Risdiplam is a low-turnover compound whose metabolism is mediated through a non-cytochrome P450 enzymatic pathway. Four main challenges of risdiplam are discussed: predicting in vivo hepatic clearance, determining in vitro metabolites with regard to metabolites in safety testing guidelines, elucidating enzymes responsible for clearance, and estimating potential drug-drug interactions. A combination of in vitro and in vivo results was successfully extrapolated and used to develop a robust physiologically based pharmacokinetic model of risdiplam. These results were verified through early clinical studies, further strengthening the understanding of the ADME properties of risdiplam in humans. These approaches can be applied to other compounds with similar ADME profiles, which may be difficult to investigate using standard methods. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Risdiplam is the first approved, small-molecule, survival of motor neuron 2 mRNA splicing modifier for the treatment of spinal muscular atrophy. The approach taken to characterize the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) properties of risdiplam during clinical development incorporated in vitro-in vivo-in silico techniques, which may be applicable to other small molecules with challenging ADME. These strategies may be useful in improving the speed at which future drug molecules can be developed.

Identification of specific gene methylation patterns during motor neuron differentiation from spinal muscular atrophy patient-derived iPSC.

Spinal muscular atrophy is a progressive motor neuron disorder caused by deletions or point mutations in the SMN1 gene. It is not known why motor neurons are particularly sensitive to a decrease in SMN protein levels and what factors besides SMN2 underlie the high clinical heterogeneity of the disease. Here we studied the methylation patterns of genes on sequential stages of motor neuron differentiation from induced pluripotent stem cells derived from the patients with SMA type I and II. The genes involved in the regulation of pluripotency, neural differentiation as well as those associated with spinal muscular atrophy development were included. The results show that the PAX6, HB9, CHAT, ARHGAP22, and SMN2 genes are differently methylated in cells derived from SMA patients compared to the cells of healthy individuals. This study clarifies the specificities of the disease pathogenesis and extends the knowledge of pathways involved in the SMA progression.

Antisense oligonucleotides targeting the SMN2 promoter region enhance SMN2 expression in spinal muscular atrophy cell lines and mouse model.

Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is an autosomal recessive neuromuscular disease caused by homozygous deletions or mutations in survival motor neuron gene 1 (SMN1). Currently, the primary therapeutic strategy for SMA is to increase the level of SMN via correcting SMN2 splicing (nusinersen and risdiplam). However, some patients with SMA do not respond to such treatments, thereby warranting a need to develop new therapeutic strategies. We have previously reported that SMN2 expression is epigenetically regulated by DNA methylation levels of the SMN2 promoter region. In the present study, we determined that methyl-CpG-binding protein 2 (MeCP2) may bind to this critical promoter region (nt-167 to 43). Antisense oligonucleotides (ASO-P1 and ASO-P2) were designed to target the key methylation sites in the SMN2 promoter region, which enhanced the overall transcription and functional protein expression levels in the SMA cell lines. These results were similar to those observed in nusinersen-treated SMA cells. Moreover, a combined treatment of ASO-P1 and ASO-NUS in SMA cell lines further increases fl-SMN2 transcript and SMN protein levels. The delivery of ASO-P1 to the central nervous system of severe SMA mice corrected the molecular, pathological, and functional phenotypes of this disease and increased survival rates. Our findings suggest that the key methylation regions in the SMN2 promoter region may be a novel therapeutic target for SMA.

What Genetics Has Told Us and How It Can Inform Future Experiments for Spinal Muscular Atrophy, a Perspective.

Proximal spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is an autosomal recessive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by motor neuron loss and subsequent atrophy of skeletal muscle. SMA is caused by deficiency of the essential survival motor neuron (SMN) protein, canonically responsible for the assembly of the spliceosomal small nuclear ribonucleoproteins (snRNPs). Therapeutics aimed at increasing SMN protein levels are efficacious in treating SMA. However, it remains unknown how deficiency of SMN results in motor neuron loss, resulting in many reported cellular functions of SMN and pathways affected in SMA. Herein is a perspective detailing what genetics and biochemistry have told us about SMA and SMN, from identifying the SMA determinant region of the genome, to the development of therapeutics. Furthermore, we will discuss how genetics and biochemistry have been used to understand SMN function and how we can determine which of these are critical to SMA moving forward.

Regulated control of gene therapies by drug-induced splicing.

So far, gene therapies have relied on complex constructs that cannot be finely controlled1,2. Here we report a universal switch element that enables precise control of gene replacement or gene editing after exposure to a small molecule. The small-molecule inducers are currently in human use, are orally bioavailable when given to animals or humans and can reach both peripheral tissues and the brain. Moreover, the switch system, which we denote Xon, does not require the co-expression of any regulatory proteins. Using Xon, the translation of the desired elements for controlled gene replacement or gene editing machinery occurs after a single oral dose of the inducer, and the robustness of expression can be controlled by the drug dose, protein stability and redosing. The ability of Xon to provide temporal control of protein expression can be adapted for cell-biology applications and animal studies. Additionally, owing to the oral bioavailability and safety of the drugs used, the Xon switch system provides an unprecedented opportunity to refine and tailor the application of gene therapies in humans.

Use of Intramolecular 1,5-Sulfur-Oxygen and 1,5-Sulfur-Halogen Interactions in the Design of N-Methyl-5-aryl-N-(2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidin-4-yl)-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-amine SMN2 Splicing Modulators.

Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is a debilitating neuromuscular disease caused by low levels of functional survival motor neuron protein (SMN) resulting from a deletion or loss of function mutation of the survival motor neuron 1 (SMN1) gene. Branaplam (1) elevates levels of full-length SMN protein in vivo by modulating the splicing of the related gene SMN2 to enhance the exon-7 inclusion and increase levels of the SMN. The intramolecular hydrogen bond present in the 2-hydroxyphenyl pyridazine core of 1 enforces a planar conformation of the biaryl system and is critical for the compound activity. Scaffold morphing revealed that the pyridazine could be replaced by a 1,3,4-thiadiazole, which provided additional opportunities for a conformational constraint of the biaryl through intramolecular 1,5-sulfur-oxygen (S···O) or 1,5-sulfur-halogen (S···X) noncovalent interactions. Compound 26, which incorporates a 2-fluorophenyl thiadiazole motif, demonstrated a greater than 50% increase in production of full-length SMN protein in a mouse model of SMA.

Natural history in spinal muscular atrophy Type I in Taiwanese population: A longitudinal study.

INTRODUCTION: Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is caused by a defect in the survival motor neuron 1 (SMN1) gene. The Cooperative Study of the natural history of SMA Type I in Taiwan is a retrospective, longitudinal, observational study that helps in further understanding SMA disease progression in patients who have not received disease-modifying therapeutic interventions. METHODS: Case report forms were used to collect demographics; genetic confirmation; SMN2 copy number; treatment patterns; and clinical outcomes including ventilator use, endotracheal tube intubation, tracheostomy, gastrostomy, complications, and survival. RESULTS: A total of 111 patients with SMA Type I were identified over the study period (1979-2015). Mean (median) age of onset and age at confirmed diagnosis were 1.3 (0.8) and 4.9 (4.4) months, respectively. SMN1 deletion/mutation was documented in 70 patients and SMN2 copy number in 32 (2 copies, n = 20; 3 copies, n = 12). At 240 months, survival probability for patients born during 1995-2015 versus 1979-1994 was significantly longer (p = 0.0057). Patients with 3 SMN2 copies showed substantially longer 240-month survival versus patients with 2 SMN2 copies. Over the 36-year period, mean (median) age at death was 31.9 (8.8) months. As of December 2015, 95 patients had died, 13 were alive, and 3 were lost to follow-up. The use of supportive measures (tracheostomy and gastrostomy) was associated with improved survival. CONCLUSIONS: These data describe the short survival of patients with SMA Type I in Taiwan in the pretreatment era, emphasizing the positive impact of supportive measures on survival.

Identification of SRSF10 as a regulator of SMN2 ISS-N1.

Understanding the splicing code can be challenging as several splicing factors bind to many splicing-regulatory elements. The SMN1 and SMN2 silencer element ISS-N1 is the target of the antisense oligonucleotide drug, Spinraza, which is the treatment against spinal muscular atrophy. However, limited knowledge about the nature of the splicing factors that bind to ISS-N1 and inhibit splicing exists. It is likely that the effect of Spinraza comes from blocking binding of these factors, but so far, an unbiased characterization has not been performed and only members of the hnRNP A1/A2 family have been identified by Western blot analysis and nuclear magnetic resonance to bind to this silencer. Employing an MS/MS-based approach and surface plasmon resonance imaging, we show for the first time that splicing factor SRSF10 binds to ISS-N1. Furthermore, using splice-switching oligonucleotides we modulated the splicing of the SRSF10 isoforms generating either the long or the short protein isoform of SRSF10 to regulate endogenous SMN2 exon 7 inclusion. We demonstrate that the isoforms of SRSF10 regulate SMN1 and SMN2 splicing with different strength correlating with the length of their RS domain. Our results suggest that the ratio between the SRSF10 isoforms is important for splicing regulation.

Short-duration splice promoting compound enables a tunable mouse model of spinal muscular atrophy.

Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is a motor neuron disease and the leading genetic cause of infant mortality. SMA results from insufficient survival motor neuron (SMN) protein due to alternative splicing. Antisense oligonucleotides, gene therapy and splicing modifiers recently received FDA approval. Although severe SMA transgenic mouse models have been beneficial for testing therapeutic efficacy, models mimicking milder cases that manifest post-infancy have proven challenging to develop. We established a titratable model of mild and moderate SMA using the splicing compound NVS-SM2. Administration for 30 d prevented development of the SMA phenotype in severe SMA mice, which typically show rapid weakness and succumb by postnatal day 11. Furthermore, administration at day eight resulted in phenotypic recovery. Remarkably, acute dosing limited to the first 3 d of life significantly enhanced survival in two severe SMA mice models, easing the burden on neonates and demonstrating the compound as suitable for evaluation of follow-on therapies without potential drug-drug interactions. This pharmacologically tunable SMA model represents a useful tool to investigate cellular and molecular pathogenesis at different stages of disease.

Pathogenesis and therapeutic targets in spinal muscular atrophy (SMA).

Autosomal-recessive spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is characterized by the loss of specific motor neurons of the spinal cord and skeletal muscle atrophy. SMA is caused by mutations or deletions of the survival motor neuron 1 (SMN1) gene, and disease severity correlates with the expression levels of the nearly identical copy gene, SMN2. Both genes ubiquitously express SMN protein, but SMN2 generates only low levels of protein that do not fully compensate for the loss-of-function of SMN1. SMN protein forms a multiprotein complex essential for the cellular assembly of ribonucleoprotein particles involved in diverse aspects of RNA metabolism. Other studies using animal models revealed a spatio-temporal requirement of SMN that is high during the development of the neuromuscular system and later, in the general maintenance of cellular and tissues homeostasis. These observations define a period for maximum therapeutic efficiency of SMN restoration, and suggest that cells outside the central nervous system may also participate in the pathogenesis of SMA. Finally, recent innovative therapies have been shown to mitigate SMN deficiency and have been approved to treat SMA patients. We briefly review major findings from the past twenty-five years of SMA research. © 2020 French Society of Pediatrics. Published by Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.