Visual and semiquantitative analysis of 82Rb uptake in malignant tumors on PET/CT: first systematic analysis.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to analyze the uptake of rubidium in malignant tumors. PARTICIPANTS AND METHODS: Sixteen malignant lesions were included. Two radiologists compared each lesion to four references (subcutaneous fat, lung, mediastinal blood pool, and liver) at rest and stress and scored as 1-4. Maximum standardized uptake value (SUV) in each lesion and four references, as well as ratios of lesion SUV to SUV of each of the references, were calculated at rest and stress. We assessed an agreement for scores of reader 1 versus reader 2 (inter-reader) at rest and stress, scores at rest versus stress (intrapatient) for reader 1 and reader 2, and lesion SUV and respective ratios at rest and stress using paired t-test and Bland-Altman analyses. RESULTS: Fifteen (94%) out of 16 lesions had a score of 3 or 4 at rest or stress or both by at least one reviewer. We did not find evidence of inter-reader bias at rest or stress or intrapatient (rest vs. stress) bias for either reader. SUV ranged from 1.0 to 8.1 at rest and from 0.7 to 6.7 at stress. There was an excellent agreement between ratios of lesion SUV to lung SUV at rest versus stress. On the extreme, there was a poor agreement between ratios of lesion SUV to liver SUV at rest versus stress. Otherwise, the agreement was good for the majority of the results, and moderate for a few others. CONCLUSION: Malignant tumors can be readily depicted and quantified on rubidium PET/CT. Further research is needed.

Intermediate conductance Ca2+-activated K+ channels modulate human placental trophoblast syncytialization.

Regulation of human placental syncytiotrophoblast renewal by cytotrophoblast migration, aggregation/fusion and differentiation is essential for successful pregnancy. In several tissues, these events are regulated by intermediate conductance Ca2+-activated K+ channels (IKCa), in part through their ability to regulate cell volume. We used cytotrophoblasts in primary culture to test the hypotheses that IKCa participate in the formation of multinucleated syncytiotrophoblast and in syncytiotrophoblast volume homeostasis. Cytotrophoblasts were isolated from normal term placentas and cultured for 66 h. This preparation recreates syncytiotrophoblast formation in vivo, as mononucleate cells (15 h) fuse into multinucleate syncytia (66 h) concomitant with elevated secretion of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG). Cells were treated with the IKCa inhibitor TRAM-34 (10 µM) or activator DCEBIO (100 µM). Culture medium was collected to measure hCG secretion and cells fixed for immunofluorescence with anti-IKCa and anti-desmoplakin antibodies to assess IKCa expression and multinucleation respectively. K+ channel activity was assessed by measuring 86Rb efflux at 66 h. IKCa immunostaining was evident in nucleus, cytoplasm and surface of mono- and multinucleate cells. DCEBIO increased 86Rb efflux 8.3-fold above control and this was inhibited by TRAM-34 (85%; p<0.0001). Cytotrophoblast multinucleation increased 12-fold (p<0.05) and hCG secretion 20-fold (p<0.05), between 15 and 66 h. Compared to controls, DCEBIO reduced multinucleation by 42% (p<0.05) and hCG secretion by 80% (p<0.05). TRAM-34 alone did not affect cytotrophoblast multinucleation or hCG secretion. Hyposmotic solution increased 86Rb efflux 3.8-fold (p<0.0001). This effect was dependent on extracellular Ca2+, inhibited by TRAM-34 and 100 nM charybdotoxin (85% (p<0.0001) and 43% respectively) but unaffected by 100 nM apamin. In conclusion, IKCa are expressed in cytotrophoblasts and their activation inhibits the formation of multinucleated cells in vitro. IKCa are stimulated by syncytiotrophoblast swelling implicating a role in syncytiotrophoblast volume homeostasis. Inappropriate activation of IKCa in pathophysiological conditions could compromise syncytiotrophoblast turnover and volume homeostasis in pregnancy disease.

Translocation domain mutations affecting cellular toxicity identify the Clostridium difficile toxin B pore.

Disease associated with Clostridium difficile infection is caused by the actions of the homologous toxins TcdA and TcdB on colonic epithelial cells. Binding to target cells triggers toxin internalization into acidified vesicles, whereupon cryptic segments from within the 1,050-aa translocation domain unfurl and insert into the bounding membrane, creating a transmembrane passageway to the cytosol. Our current understanding of the mechanisms underlying pore formation and the subsequent translocation of the upstream cytotoxic domain to the cytosol is limited by the lack of information available regarding the identity and architecture of the transmembrane pore. Here, through systematic perturbation of conserved sites within predicted membrane-insertion elements of the translocation domain, we uncovered highly sensitive residues--clustered between amino acids 1,035 and 1,107--that when individually mutated, reduced cellular toxicity by as much as >1,000-fold. We demonstrate that defective variants are defined by impaired pore formation in planar lipid bilayers and biological membranes, resulting in an inability to intoxicate cells through either apoptotic or necrotic pathways. These findings along with the unexpected similarities uncovered between the pore-forming "hotspots" of TcdB and the well-characterized α-helical diphtheria toxin translocation domain provide insights into the structure and mechanism of formation of the translocation pore for this important class of pathogenic toxins.

Evaluation of in vivo detection properties of 22Na, 65Zn, 86Rb, 109Cd and 137Cs in plant tissues using real-time radioisotope imaging system.

In plant research, radioisotope imaging provides useful information about physiological activities in various tissues and elemental transport between plant organs. To expand the usage of imaging techniques, a new system was developed to visualize beta particles, x-rays and gamma-rays emitted from plant bodies. This real-time radioisotope imaging system (RRIS) visualizes radioactivity after conversion into light with a CsI(Tl) scintillator plate. Herein, the RRIS detection properties of the gamma-ray emitters (22)Na, (65)Zn, (86)Rb, (109)Cd and (137)Cs were evaluated in comparison with those of radioluminography (RLG) using an imaging plate. The lower quantitative detection limit (Bq mm(-2)) during a 15 min period ranged from 0.1 to 4, depending on the nuclide, similar to that of RLG. When the quantitative ability to detect radiation from various Arabidopsis tissues was analyzed, the quantitative capability in silique and the thick internode tended to be low. In an EGS5 simulation, beta particles were the greatest contributors to RRIS imaging of (22)Na, (86)Rb and (137)Cs, and low-energy x-rays contributed significantly to (65)Zn and (109)Cd detection. Thus, both self-absorption and air space between the sample and scintillator surface could impair quantitative RRIS imaging. Despite these issues, RRIS is suggested for quantitative time-course measurements of radionuclide motion within plants.

Special K: testing the potassium link between radioactive rubidium (86Rb) turnover and metabolic rate.

The measurement of (86)Rb turnover recently has been suggested as a useful method for measuring field metabolic rate in small animals. We investigated a proposed mechanism of (86)Rb turnover, its analogy to K(+), by comparing the turnover of (86)Rb in a model insect, the rhinoceros beetle Xylotrupes gideon, fed a diet of plum jam or plum jam enriched with K(+) or Rb(+). The turnover of (86)Rb in the beetles on the K(+) and the Rb(+) diets was higher than that for beetles on the jam diet (F2,311=32.4; P=1.58×10(-13)). We also exposed the beetles to different ambient temperatures to induce differences in metabolic rate ( ) while feeding them the jam and K(+) diets. was higher at higher ambient temperature (Ta) for both jam (F1,11=14.56; P=0.003) and K(+) (F1,8=15.39; P=0.004) dietary groups, and the turnover of (86)Rb was higher at higher Ta for both jam (F1,11=10.80; P=0.007) and K(+) (F1,8=12.34; P=0.008) dietary groups. There was a significant relationship between (86)Rb turnover and for both the jam (F1,11=35.00; P=1.0×10(-3)) and the K(+) (F1,8=64.33; P=4.3×10(-5)) diets, but the relationship differed between the diets (F1,19=14.07; P=0.001), with a higher (86)Rb turnover in beetles on the K(+)-enriched than on the jam diet at all Ta. We conclude that (86)Rb turnover is related to K(+) metabolism, and that this is the mechanism of the relationship between (86)Rb turnover and . Studies relating (86)Rb turnover to should maintain dietary [K] as close as possible to that of natural diets for the most accurate calibrations for free-ranging animals.

Identification of a mutant α1 Na/K-ATPase that pumps but is defective in signal transduction.

BACKGROUND: It has not been possible to study the pumping and signaling functions of Na/K-ATPase independently in live cells. RESULTS: Both cell-free and cell-based assays indicate that the A420P mutation abolishes the Src regulatory function of Na/K-ATPase. CONCLUSION: A420P mutant has normal pumping but not signaling function. SIGNIFICANCE: Identification of Src regulation-null mutants is crucial for addressing physiological role of Na/K-ATPase. The α1 Na/K-ATPase possesses both pumping and signaling functions. However, it has not been possible to study these functions independently in live cells. We have identified a 20-amino acid peptide (Ser-415 to Gln-434) (NaKtide) from the nucleotide binding domain of α1 Na/K-ATPase that binds and inhibits Src in vitro. The N terminus of NaKtide adapts a helical structure. In vitro kinase assays showed that replacement of residues that contain a bulky side chain in the helical structure of NaKtide by alanine abolished the inhibitory effect of the peptide on Src. Similarly, disruption of helical structure by proline replacement, either single or in combination, reduced the inhibitory potency of NaKtide on Src. To identify mutant α1 that retains normal pumping function but is defective in Src regulation, we transfected Na/K-ATPase α1 knockdown PY-17 cells with expression vectors of wild type or mutant α1 carrying Ala to Pro mutations in the region of NaKtide helical structure and generated several stable cell lines. We found that expression of either A416P or A420P or A425P mutant fully restored the α1 content and consequently the pumping capacity of cells. However, in contrast to A416P, either A420P or A425P mutant was incapable of interacting and regulating cellular Src. Consequently, expression of these two mutants caused significant inhibition of ouabain-activated signal transduction and cell growth. Thus we have identified α1 mutant that has normal pumping function but is defective in signal transduction.

Multisoftware reproducibility study of stress and rest myocardial blood flow assessed with 3D dynamic PET/CT and a 1-tissue-compartment model of 82Rb kinetics.

UNLABELLED: Routine quantification of myocardial blood flow (MBF) requires robust and reproducible processing of dynamic image series. The goal of this study was to evaluate the reproducibility of 3 highly automated software programs commonly used for absolute MBF and flow reserve (stress/rest MBF) assessment with (82)Rb PET imaging. METHODS: Dynamic rest and stress (82)Rb PET scans were selected in 30 sequential patient studies performed at 3 separate institutions using 3 different 3-dimensional PET/CT scanners. All 90 scans were processed with 3 different MBF quantification programs, using the same 1-tissue-compartment model. Global (left ventricle) and regional (left anterior descending, left circumflex, and right coronary arteries) MBF and flow reserve were compared among programs using correlation and Bland-Altman analyses. RESULTS: All scans were processed successfully by the 3 programs, with minimal operator interactions. Global and regional correlations of MBF and flow reserve all had an R(2) of at least 0.92. There was no significant difference in flow values at rest (P = 0.68), stress (P = 0.14), or reserve (P = 0.35) among the 3 programs. Bland-Altman coefficients of reproducibility (1.96 × SD) averaged 0.26 for MBF and 0.29 for flow reserve differences among programs. Average pairwise differences were all less than 10%, indicating good reproducibility for MBF quantification. Global and regional SD from the line of perfect agreement averaged 0.15 and 0.17 mL/min/g, respectively, for MBF, compared with 0.22 and 0.26, respectively, for flow reserve. CONCLUSION: The 1-tissue-compartment model of (82)Rb tracer kinetics is a reproducible method for quantification of MBF and flow reserve with 3-dimensional PET/CT imaging.

Nicotine-morphine interactions at α4ß2, α7 and α3(⁎) nicotinic acetylcholine receptors.

Nicotine and opioids share several behavioral and rewarding properties. Although both opioids and nicotine have their own specific mechanism of action, there is empirical and experimental evidence of interactions between these drugs. We studied receptor-level interactions of nicotine and morphine at α4ß2, α7 and α3(⁎) nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. [(3)H]epibatidine displacement was used to determine if morphine binds competitively to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. Functional interactions of morphine and nicotine were studied with calcium fluorometry and (86)Rb(+) efflux assays. Morphine displaced [(3)H]epibatidine from nicotinic agonist binding sites in all cell lines studied. The Ki values for morphine were 13.2µM in SH-EP1-hα4ß2 cells, 0.16µM and 126µM in SH-SY5Y cells and 43.7µM in SH-EP1-hα7 cells. In SH-EP1-hα4ß2 cells expressing α4ß2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, morphine acted as a partial agonist of (86)Rb(+) efflux comparable to cytisine (with EC50 values of 53.3µM for morphine and 5.38µM for cytisine). The effect of morphine was attenuated concentration-dependently by the nicotinic antagonist mecamylamine. In the SH-SY5Y cell line expressing several subtypes of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors morphine had an inhibitory effect on nicotine induced (86)Rb(+) ion efflux mediated by α3(⁎) nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. These results suggest that morphine acts as a partial agonist at α4ß2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors and as a weak antagonist at α3(⁎) nicotinic acetylcholine receptors.

Astrocytes modulate neural network activity by Ca²+-dependent uptake of extracellular K+.

Astrocytes are electrically nonexcitable cells that display increases in cytosolic calcium ion (Ca²+) in response to various neurotransmitters and neuromodulators. However, the physiological role of astrocytic Ca²+ signaling remains controversial. We show here that astrocytic Ca²+ signaling ex vivo and in vivo stimulated the Na+,K+-ATPase (Na+- and K+-dependent adenosine triphosphatase), leading to a transient decrease in the extracellular potassium ion (K+) concentration. This in turn led to neuronal hyperpolarization and suppressed baseline excitatory synaptic activity, detected as a reduced frequency of excitatory postsynaptic currents. Synaptic failures decreased in parallel, leading to an increase in synaptic fidelity. The net result was that astrocytes, through active uptake of K+, improved the signal-to-noise ratio of synaptic transmission. Active control of the extracellular K+ concentration thus provides astrocytes with a simple yet powerful mechanism to rapidly modulate network activity.

Low efficiency of functional translation of ouabain-resistant α2-Na(+),K(+)-ATPase mRNA in C7-MDCK epithelial cells.

Na(+),K(+)-ATPase is a heterodimer consisting of catalytic α1-α4 and regulatory ß1-ß3 subunits. Recently, we reported that transfection with ouabain-resistant α1R-Na(+),K(+)-ATPase rescues renal epithelial C7-MDCK cells exclusively expressing the ouabain-sensitive α1S-isoform from the cytotoxic action of ouabain. To explore the role of α2 subunit in ion transport and cytotoxic action of ouabain, we compared the effect of ouabain on K(+) ((86)Rb) influx and the survival of ouabain-treated C7-MDCK cells stably transfected with α1R- and α2R-Na(+),K(+)-ATPase. α2R mRNA in transfected cells was ∼8-fold more abundant than α1R mRNA, whereas immunoreactive α2R protein content was 5-fold lower than endogenous α1S protein. A concentration of 10 µmol/L ouabain led to complete inhibition of (86)Rb influx both in mock- and α2R-transfected cells, whereas maximal inhibition of (86)Rb influx in α1R-transfectd cells was observed at 1000 µmol/L ouabain. In contrast to the massive death of mock- and α2R-transfected cells exposed to 3 µmol/L ouabain , α1R-cells survived after 24 h incubation with 1000 µmol/L ouabain. Thus, our results show that unlike α1R, the presence of α2R-Na(+),K(+)-ATPase subunit mRNA and immunoreactive protein does not contribute to Na(+)/K(+) pump activity, and does not rescue C7-MDCK cells from the cytotoxic action of ouabain. Our results also suggest that the lack of impact of transfected α2-Na(+),K(+)-ATPase on Na(+)/K(+) pump activity and cell survival can be attributed to the low efficiency of its translation and (or) delivery to the plasma membrane of renal epithelial cells.

Role of an apical K,Cl cotransporter in urine formation by renal tubules of the yellow fever mosquito (Aedes aegypti).

The K,Cl cotransporters (KCCs) of the SLC12 superfamily play critical roles in the regulation of cell volume, concentrations of intracellular Cl(-), and epithelial transport in vertebrate tissues. To date, the role(s) of KCCs in the renal functions of mosquitoes and other insects is less clear. In the present study, we sought molecular and functional evidence for the presence of a KCC in renal (Malpighian) tubules of the mosquito Aedes aegypti. Using RT-PCR on Aedes Malpighian tubules, we identified five alternatively spliced partial cDNAs that encode putative SLC12-like KCCs. The majority transcript is AeKCC1-A(1); its full-length cDNA was cloned. After expression of the AeKCC1-A protein in Xenopus oocytes, the Cl(-)-dependent uptake of (86)Rb(+) is 1) activated by 1 mM N-ethylmaleimide and cell swelling, 2) blocked by 100 µM dihydroindenyloxyalkanoic acid (DIOA), and 3) dependent upon N-glycosylation of AeKCC1-A. In Aedes Malpighian tubules, AeKCC1 immunoreactivity localizes to the apical brush border of principal cells, which are the predominant cell type in the epithelium. In vitro physiological assays of Malpighian tubules show that peritubular DIOA (10 µM): 1) significantly reduces both the control and diuretic rates of transepithelial fluid secretion and 2) has negligible effects on the membrane voltage and input resistance of principal cells. Taken together, the above observations indicate the presence of a KCC in the apical membrane of principal cells where it participates in a major electroneutral transport pathway for the transepithelial secretion of fluid in this highly electrogenic epithelium.

K⁺ dynamics in ischemic rat brain in vivo by 87Rb MRI at 7 T.

The aims of the present study were as follows: (i) to perform the first (87)Rb MRI in live rats with focal ischemic stroke; and (ii) to test the hypothesis that K(+) egress from the brain in this model is quantifiable in individual animals by high-field (7-T) K/Rb substitution MRI. Rats preloaded with dietary Rb(+) (resulting in Rb/(K + Rb) replacement ratios of 0.1-0.2 in the brain) were subjected to permanent occlusion of the middle cerebral artery, and (87)Rb MRI was implemented with 13-min temporal resolution using a dedicated RF coil and a spiral ultrashort-TE sequence (TR/TE = 3/0.07 ms). The ischemic core was localized by apparent diffusion coefficient mapping, by microtubule-associated protein-2 immunohistochemistry and by changes in surface reflectivity. [K], [Na] and [Rb] were determined independently in the micropunched samples by post-mortem flame photometry. Both techniques were generally in agreement in the nonischemic cortex; however, the MRI-assessed [K(+) + Rb(+)] drop in ischemic brain was less pronounced (average efflux rate of 4.8 ± 0.2 nEq/mm(3) /h versus 10 ± 1 nEq/mm(3)/h by flame photometry; p < 0.0001). The use of higher field gradients for better spatial resolution, and hence more accurate quantification, is suggested.

Mechanism for selectivity-inactivation coupling in KcsA potassium channels.

Structures of the prokaryotic K(+) channel, KcsA, highlight the role of the selectivity filter carbonyls from the GYG signature sequence in determining a highly selective pore, but channels displaying this sequence vary widely in their cation selectivity. Furthermore, variable selectivity can be found within the same channel during a process called C-type inactivation. We investigated the mechanism for changes in selectivity associated with inactivation in a model K(+) channel, KcsA. We found that E71A, a noninactivating KcsA mutant in which a hydrogen-bond behind the selectivity filter is disrupted, also displays decreased K(+) selectivity. In E71A channels, Na(+) permeates at higher rates as seen with and flux measurements and analysis of intracellular Na(+) block. Crystal structures of E71A reveal that the selectivity filter no longer assumes the "collapsed," presumed inactivated, conformation in low K(+), but a "flipped" conformation, that is also observed in high K(+), high Na(+), and even Na(+) only conditions. The data reveal the importance of the E71-D80 interaction in both favoring inactivation and maintaining high K(+) selectivity. We propose a molecular mechanism by which inactivation and K(+) selectivity are linked, a mechanism that may also be at work in other channels containing the canonical GYG signature sequence.

Differential effects of ICA-27243 on cloned K(V)7 channels.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: the neuronal K(V)7 family members (K(V)7.2-5) are important regulators of neuronal excitability. K(V)7 channel openers are therefore attractive drug candidates for the treatment of several hyperexcitability disorders. While most described K(V)7 channel openers discriminate poorly between K(V)7.2-5, Icagen's N-(6-chloropyridin- 3-yl)-3,4-difluorobenzamide (ICA-27243) is more potent at K(V)7.2/3 than at K(V)7.4 and K(V)7.3/5 and offers some progress towards subtype selectivity. We have investigated its mode of action on K(V)7.2 and K(V)7.4, compared its effect to that of retigabine and studied the combinatorial effect of retigabine and ICA-27243, as these two compounds recognize different binding sites in the channels. METHODS: the effects of ICA-27243 and retigabine were studied using voltage-clamp electrophysiology in Xenopus laevis oocytes and rubidium flux in Chinese hamster ovary cells. RESULTS: we found that in contrast to retigabine's voltage-dependent action on K(V)7.2, ICA-27243 induced a voltage-independent current on this subtype, which was not observed on K(V)7.4. Additionally, the combined treatment of K(V)7.2 and K(V)7.4 with retigabine and ICA-27243 revealed that the effect of ICA-27243 on K(V)7.2 dominates that of retigabine, while the compounds act additively and synergistically on K(V)7.4. CONCLUSIONS: these results offer further detailed insight into pharmacological activation of K(V)7 channels and offer evidence of differential functional and subtype-specific effects by activation of different binding sites in the K(V)7 channels.

The GPA-dependent, spherostomatocytosis mutant AE1 E758K induces GPA-independent, endogenous cation transport in amphibian oocytes.

The previously undescribed heterozygous missense mutation E758K was discovered in the human AE1/SLC4A1/band 3 gene in two unrelated patients with well-compensated hereditary spherostomatocytic anemia (HSt). Oocyte surface expression of AE1 E758K, in contrast to that of wild-type AE1, required coexpressed glycophorin A (GPA). The mutant polypeptide exhibited, in parallel, strong GPA dependence of DIDS-sensitive (36)Cl(-) influx, trans-anion-dependent (36)Cl(-) efflux, and Cl(-)/HCO(3)(-) exchange activities at near wild-type levels. AE1 E758K expression was also associated with GPA-dependent increases of DIDS-sensitive pH-independent SO(4)(2-) uptake and oxalate uptake with altered pH dependence. In marked contrast, the bumetanide- and ouabain-insensitive (86)Rb(+) influx associated with AE1 E758K expression was largely GPA-independent in Xenopus oocytes and completely GPA-independent in Ambystoma oocytes. AE1 E758K-associated currents in Xenopus oocytes also exhibited little or no GPA dependence. (86)Rb(+) influx was higher but inward cation current was lower in oocytes expressing AE1 E758K than previously reported in oocytes expressing the AE1 HSt mutants S731P and H734R. The pharmacological inhibition profile of AE1 E758K-associated (36)Cl(-) influx differed from that of AE1 E758K-associated (86)Rb(+) influx, as well as from that of wild-type AE1-mediated Cl(-) transport. Thus AE1 E758K-expressing oocytes displayed GPA-dependent surface polypeptide expression and anion transport, accompanied by substantially GPA-independent, pharmacologically distinct Rb(+) flux and by small, GPA-independent currents. The data strongly suggest that most of the increased cation transport associated with the novel HSt mutant AE1 E758K reflects activation of endogenous oocyte cation permeability pathways, rather than cation translocation through the mutant polypeptide.

The distribution of (137)Cs, K, Rb and Cs in plants in a Sphagnum-dominated peatland in eastern central Sweden.

We record the distribution of (137)Cs, K, Rb and Cs within individual Sphagnum plants (down to 20cm depth) as well as (137)Cs in vascular plants growing on a peatland in eastern central Sweden. In Calluna vulgaris(137)Cs was mainly located within the green parts, whereas Andromeda polifolia, Eriophorum vaginatum and Vaccinium oxycoccos showed higher (137)Cs activity in roots. Carex rostrata and Menyanthes trifoliata showed variable distribution of (137)Cs within the plants. The patterns of (137)Cs activity concentration distribution as well as K, Rb and Cs concentrations within individual Sphagnum plants were rather similar and were usually highest in the capitula and/or in the subapical segments and lowest in the lower dead segments, which suggests continuous relocation of those elements to the actively growing apical part. The (137)Cs and K showed relatively weak correlations, especially in capitula and living green segments (0-10cm) of the plant (r=0.50). The strongest correlations were revealed between (137)Cs and Rb (r=0.89), and between (137)Cs and stable Cs (r=0.84). This suggests similarities between (137)Cs and Rb in uptake and relocation within the Sphagnum, but that (137)Cs differs from K.

Chemical crosslinking studies with the mouse Kcc1 K-Cl cotransporter.

Oligomerization, function, and regulation of unmodified mouse Kcc1 K-Cl cotransporter were studied by chemical crosslinking. Treatment of Xenopus oocytes and 293T cells expressing K-Cl cotransporter Kcc1 with several types of chemical cross-linkers shifted Kcc1 polypeptide to higher molecular weight forms. More extensive studies were performed with the amine-reactive disuccinyl suberate (DSS) and with the sulfhydryl-reactive bis-maleimidohexane (BMH). Kcc1 cross-linking was time-dependent in intact oocytes, and was independent of protein concentration in detergent lysates from oocytes or 293T cells. Kcc1 cross-linking by the cleavable cross-linker DTME was reversible. The N-terminal and C-terminal cytoplasmic tails of Kcc1 were not essential for Kcc1 crosslinking. PFO-PAGE and gel filtration revealed oligomeric states of uncrosslinked KCC1 corresponding in mobility to that of cross-linked protein. DSS and BMH each inhibited KCC1-mediated (86)Rb(+) uptake stimulated by hypotonicity or by N-ethylmaleimide (NEM) without reduction in nominal surface abundance of KCC1. These data add to evidence supporting the oligomeric state of KCC polypeptides.

Prenatal exposure of rats to nicotine causes persistent alterations of nicotinic cholinergic receptors.

We examined for immediate and persistent changes in nAChRs in cerebral cortex, thalamus and striatum of male rats caused by prenatal exposure to nicotine from gestational day 3 to postnatal day 10 (PN10), and how such exposure affected the responses of adolescents to subsequent nicotine challenge. Receptor numbers were assessed by [(3)H]epibatidine binding and receptor function was measured by acetylcholine-stimulated (86)Rb efflux (cerebral cortex and thalamus) and nicotine-stimulated dopamine release (striatum). Immediate effects of prenatal nicotine, assessed in PN10 animals, were not detected for any parameter. A subsequent 14 day nicotine exposure in adolescence revealed persistent changes caused by prenatal nicotine exposure. Nicotine exposure in adolescents caused up-regulation of binding in all three regions; however, this up-regulation was lost in thalamus from animals prenatally exposed to nicotine. Nicotine exposure in adolescents caused decreased nicotine-stimulated dopamine release in striatum; this effect was lost in animals prenatally exposed to nicotine. Comparison of parameters in PN10 and PN42 rats revealed developmental changes in the CNS cholinergic system. In thalamus, binding increased with age, as did the proportion of (86)Rb efflux with high sensitivity to acetylcholine. In cortex, binding also increased with age, but there was no change in total (86)Rb efflux, and the proportion of high to low sensitivity efflux declined with age. Nicotine-stimulated striatal dopamine release (both total and alpha-conotoxin MII-resistant release) increased with age in naïve animals, but not in those prenatally exposed to nicotine. These findings demonstrate that prenatal exposure to nicotine causes alterations in nAChRs and in their regulation by nicotine that persist into adolescence. These changes may play a role in the increased risk for nicotine addiction observed in adolescent offspring of smoking mothers.

Partial deletion of the nicotinic cholinergic receptor alpha 4 or beta 2 subunit genes changes the acetylcholine sensitivity of receptor-mediated 86Rb+ efflux in cortex and thalamus and alters relative expression of alpha 4 and beta 2 subunits.

Alpha4 and beta2 nicotinic cholinergic receptor (nAChR) subunits can assemble in heterologous expression systems as pentameric receptors with different subunit stoichiometries that exhibit differential sensitivity to activation by acetylcholine, yielding biphasic concentration-effect curves. nAChR-mediated (86)Rb(+) efflux in mouse brain synaptosomes also displays biphasic acetylcholine (ACh) concentration-response curves. Both phases are mediated primarily by alpha4beta2(*)-nAChR, because deletion of either the alpha4 or beta2 subunit reduces response at least 90%. A relatively larger decrease in the component of (86)Rb(+) efflux with lower ACh sensitivity occurred with partial deletion of alpha4 (alpha4(+/-)), whereas a larger decrease in the component with higher ACh sensitivity was elicited by partial deletion of beta2 (beta2(+/-)). Immunoprecipitation with selective antibodies demonstrated that more than 70% of [(3)H]epibatidine binding sites in both regions contained only alpha4 and beta2 subunits. Subsequently, alpha4 and beta2 subunit content in the cortex and thalamus of alpha4 and beta2 wild types and heterozygotes was analyzed with Western blots. Partial deletion of alpha4 decreased and partial deletion of beta2 increased the relative proportion of the alpha4 subunit in assembled receptors. Although these methods do not allow exact identification of stoichiometry of the subtypes present in wild-type cortex and thalamus, they do demonstrate that cortical and thalamic nAChRs of the alpha4(+/-) and beta2(+/-) genotypes differ in relative expression of alpha4 and beta2 subunits a result that corresponds to the relative functional changes observed after partial gene deletion. These results strongly suggest that alpha4beta2-nAChR with different stoichiometry are expressed in native tissue.

Inhibition of the human P2X7 receptor by a novel protein tyrosine kinase antagonist.

A panel of 18 protein tyrosine kinase antagonists were tested for their inhibitory effect on human P2X(7) receptor-mediated (86)Rb(+) (K(+)) efflux. The most potent compound (compound P), a phthalazinamine derivative and an inhibitor of vascular endothelial growth factor receptor kinase, blocked ATP-induced (86)Rb(+)-efflux in human B-lymphocytes and erythrocytes by 76% and 66%, respectively. This inhibition was dose-dependent in both cell types with an IC(50) of approximately 5muM. Kinetic analysis showed compound P was a non-competitive inhibitor of P2X(7). This compound also inhibited ATP-induced ethidium(+) influx into B-lymphocytes and P2X(7)-transfected-HEK-293 cells, as well as ATP-induced (86)Rb(+)-efflux from canine erythrocytes. Externally, but not internally, applied compound P impaired ATP-induced inward currents in P2X(7)-transfected-HEK-293 cells. This study demonstrates that a novel protein tyrosine kinase antagonist directly impairs native and recombinant human P2X(7) receptors. The data suggests that antagonists which target ATP-binding sites of kinases may potentially block the P2X(7) receptor.