Lack of adenosine A3 receptors causes defects in mouse peripheral blood parameters.

The role of the adenosine A3 receptor in hematopoiesis was studied using adenosine A3 receptor knockout (A3AR KO) mice. Hematological parameters of peripheral blood and femoral bone marrow of irradiated and untreated A3AR KO mice and their wild-type (WT) counterparts were investigated. Irradiation of the mice served as a defined hematopoiesis-damaging means enabling us to evaluate contingent differences in the pattern of experimentally induced hematopoietic suppression between the A3AR KO mice and WT mice. Defects were observed in the counts and/or functional parameters of blood cells in the A3AR KO mice. These defects include statistically significantly lower values of blood neutrophil and monocyte counts, as well as those of mean erythrocyte volume, mean erythrocyte hemoglobin, blood platelet counts, mean platelet volume, and plateletcrit, and can be considered to bear evidence of the lack of a positive role played by the adenosine A3 receptor in the hematopoietic system. Statistically significantly increased values of the bone marrow parameters studied in A3AR KO mice (femoral bone marrow cellularity, granulocyte/macrophage progenitor cells, and erythrocyte progenitor cells) can probably be explained by compensatory mechanisms attempting to offset the disorders in the function of blood elements in these mice. The pattern of the radiation-induced hematopoietic suppression was very similar in A3AR KO mice and their WT counterparts.

Enhanced neurodegeneration after a high dose of methamphetamine in adenosine A3 receptor null mutant mice.

Previous reports have indicated that adenosine A3 receptor (A3R) knockout mice are more sensitive to ischemic or hypoxic brain injury. The purpose of this study was to examine if suppression of A3R expression is associated with increase in sensitivity to injury induced by a high dose of methamphetamine (Meth). Adult male A3R null mutant (-/-) mice and their controls (+/+) were injected with four doses (2 h apart) of Meth (10 mg/kg) or saline. Animals were placed in a behavioral activity chamber, equipped with food and water, for 52 h starting from one day after injections. The first 4 h were used for studying exploratory behaviors, and the next 48 h were used to measure locomotor activity. High doses of Meth equally reduced the 4-h exploratory behavior in -/- and +/+ mice. Meth suppressed locomotor activity between 4 and 52 h in both groups, with a greater reduction being found in the -/- mice. Brain tissues were collected at 3 days after the Meth or saline injections. Meth treatment reduced striatal dopamine (DA) levels in both +/+ and -/- mice with an increase in 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC)/DA ratio being found only in -/- animals. Meth also significantly increased ionized calcium-binding adaptor molecule 1 (Iba-1) and cleaved caspase-3 level in striatum, as well as Iba-1 and TNFα mRNA expression in nigra in -/-, compared to +/+, mice. Previous studies have shown that pharmacological suppression of vesicular monoamine transport 2 (VMAT2) by reserpine enhanced Meth toxicity by increasing cytosolic DA and inflammation. A significant reduction in striatal VMAT2 expression was found in -/- mice compared to +/+ mice, suggesting that increase in sensitivity to Meth injury in -/- mice may be related to a reduction in VMAT2 expression in these mice. In conclusion, our data suggest that A3R -/- mice are more sensitive to high doses of Meth.

NADPH oxidase pathway is involved in aortic contraction induced by A3 adenosine receptor in mice.

The NADPH oxidase (Nox) subunits 1, 2 (gp91 phox), and 4 are the major sources for reactive oxygen species (ROS) in vascular tissues. In conditions such as ischemia-reperfusion and hypoxia, both ROS and adenosine are released, suggesting a possible interaction. Our aim in this study was to examine the A(3) adenosine receptor (A(3)AR)-induced vascular effects and its relation to ROS and Nox1, 2, and 4 using aortic tissues from wild-type (WT) and A(3)AR knockout (A(3)KO) mice. The selective A(3)AR agonist 2-chloro-N(6)-(3-iodobenzyl)-adenosine-5'-N-methyluronamide (Cl-IBMECA) (10(-10)-10(-5) M) induced contraction of the aorta from WT but not from A(3)KO mice, and this contraction was inhibited by the Nox inhibitor apocynin (10(-5) M) and the ROS scavengers superoxide dismutase-polyethylene glycol and catalase-polyethylene glycol (100 U/ml each). Cl-IBMECA-induced contraction was not affected by the mast cell degranulator compound 48/80 (100 µg/ml) or the stabilizer cromolyn sodium (10(-4) M). In addition, Cl-IBMECA (10(-7) M) increased intracellular ROS generation by 35 ± 14% in WT but not in A(3)KO aorta, and this increase was inhibited by apocynin (10(-5) M), diphenyleneiodonium chloride (10(-5) M), and the A(3)AR antagonist 3-propyl-6-ethyl-5-[(ethylthio)carbonyl]-2 phenyl-4-propyl-3-pyridine carboxylate (MRS1523) (10(-5) M). Furthermore, Cl-IBMECA selectively increased the protein expression of the Nox2 subunit by 150 ± 15% in WT but not in A(3)KO mice without affecting either Nox1 or 4, and this increase was inhibited by apocynin. The mRNA of Nox2 was unchanged by Cl-IBMECA in either WT or A(3)KO aortas. In conclusion, A(3)AR enhances ROS generation, possibly through activation of Nox2, with subsequent contraction of the mouse aorta.

CX3CL1-induced modulation at CA1 synapses reveals multiple mechanisms of EPSC modulation involving adenosine receptor subtypes.

We characterized the role of adenosine receptor (AR) subtypes in the modulation of glutamatergic neurotransmission by the chemokine fractalkine (CX3CL1) in mouse hippocampal CA1 neurons. CX(3)CL1 causes a reversible depression of excitatory postsynaptic current (EPSC), which is abolished by the A(3)R antagonist MRS1523, but not by A(1)R (DPCPX) or A(2A)R (SCH58261) antagonists. Consistently, CX3CL1-induced EPSC depression is absent in slices from A(3)R(-/-) but not A(1)R(-/-) or A(2A)R(-/-) mice. Further, A(3)R stimulation causes similar EPSC depression. In cultured neurons, CX3CL1-induced depression of AMPA current shows A(1)R-A(3)R pharmacology. We conclude that glutamatergic depression induced by released adenosine requires the stimulation of different ARs.

Adenosine A3 receptor deficiency exerts unanticipated protective effects on the pressure-overloaded left ventricle.

BACKGROUND: Endogenous adenosine can protect the overloaded heart against the development of hypertrophy and heart failure, but the contribution of A(1) receptors (A(1)R) and A(3) receptors (A(3)R) is not known. METHODS AND RESULTS: To test the hypothesis that A(1)R and A(3)R can protect the heart against systolic overload, we exposed A(3)R gene-deficient (A(3)R knockout [KO]) mice and A(1)R KO mice to transverse aortic constriction (TAC). Contrary to our hypothesis, A(3)R KO attenuated 5-week TAC-induced left ventricular hypertrophy (ratio of ventricular mass/body weight increased to 7.6+/-0.3 mg/g in wild-type mice compared with 6.3+/-0.4 mg/g in KO mice), fibrosis, and dysfunction (left ventricular ejection fraction decreased to 43+/-2.5% and 55+/-4.2% in wild-type and KO mice, respectively). A(3)R KO also attenuated the TAC-induced increases of myocardial atrial natriuretic peptide and the oxidative stress markers 3'-nitrotyrosine and 4-hydroxynonenal. In contrast, A(1)R KO increased TAC-induced mortality but did not alter ventricular hypertrophy or dysfunction compared with wild-type mice. In mice in which extracellular adenosine production was impaired by CD73 KO, TAC caused greater hypertrophy and dysfunction and increased myocardial 3'-nitrotyrosine. In neonatal rat cardiomyocytes induced to hypertrophy with phenylephrine, the adenosine analogue 2-chloroadenosine reduced cell area, protein synthesis, atrial natriuretic peptide, and 3'-nitrotyrosine. Antagonism of A(3)R significantly potentiated the antihypertrophic effects of 2-chloroadenosine. CONCLUSIONS: Adenosine exerts protective effects on the overloaded heart, but the A(3)R acts counter to the protective effect of adenosine. The data suggest that selective attenuation of A(3)R activity might be a novel approach to treat pressure overload-induced left ventricular hypertrophy and dysfunction.

Adenosine induces airway hyperresponsiveness through activation of A3 receptors on mast cells.

BACKGROUND: The mechanisms responsible for the development of airway hyperresponsiveness in asthma are poorly understood. Adenosine levels are high in the lungs of patients with asthma, but a role for adenosine in the development of this cardinal feature of asthma has not been previously reported. OBJECTIVE: To determine the capacity of adenosine to induce airway hyperresponsiveness, and to investigate the mechanisms behind these effects of adenosine on airway physiology. METHODS: Wild-type C57BL/6 mice were exposed to aerosolized adenosine analog adenosine-5' N-ethylcarboxamide (NECA), and subsequent hyperresponsiveness to methacholine was investigated by measuring airway mechanics after anesthesia and tracheostomy. Similar experiments were conducted with A(1)-deficient, A(3)-deficient, and mast cell-deficient mice, as well as with mast cell-deficient mice engrafted with wild-type (wt) or A(3)(-/-) mast cells. The effect of NECA on methacholine-induced tension development in ex vivo tracheal rings was also examined. RESULTS: Exposure of wt mice to NECA resulted in the robust induction of airway hyperresponsiveness. NECA failed to induce hyperresponsiveness to methacholine in tracheal ring preps ex vivo, and NECA-induced airway hyperresponsiveness in vivo was not affected by the genetic inactivation of the A(1) adenosine receptor. In contrast, NECA-induced airway hyperresponsiveness was abolished in A(3) adenosine receptor-deficient mice and in mice deficient in mast cells. Reconstitution of mast cell-deficient mice with wt mast cells restored hyperresponsiveness, whereas reconstitution with A(3) receptor-deficient mast cells did not. CONCLUSION: Adenosine induces airway hyperresponsiveness indirectly by activating A(3) receptors on mast cells.

The A3 adenosine receptor agonist CP-532,903 [N6-(2,5-dichlorobenzyl)-3'-aminoadenosine-5'-N-methylcarboxamide] protects against myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury via the sarcolemmal ATP-sensitive potassium channel.

We examined the cardioprotective profile of the new A(3) adenosine receptor (AR) agonist CP-532,903 [N(6)-(2,5-dichlorobenzyl)-3'-aminoadenosine-5'-N-methylcarboxamide] in an in vivo mouse model of infarction and an isolated heart model of global ischemia/reperfusion injury. In radioligand binding and cAMP accumulation assays using human embryonic kidney 293 cells expressing recombinant mouse ARs, CP-532,903 was found to bind with high affinity to mouse A(3)ARs (K(i) = 9.0 +/- 2.5 nM) and with high selectivity versus mouse A(1)AR (100-fold) and A(2A)ARs (1000-fold). In in vivo ischemia/reperfusion experiments, pretreating mice with 30 or 100 microg/kg CP-532,903 reduced infarct size from 59.2 +/- 2.1% of the risk region in vehicle-treated mice to 42.5 +/- 2.3 and 39.0 +/- 2.9%, respectively. Likewise, treating isolated mouse hearts with CP-532,903 (10, 30, or 100 nM) concentration dependently improved recovery of contractile function after 20 min of global ischemia and 45 min of reperfusion, including developed pressure and maximal rate of contraction/relaxation. In both models of ischemia/reperfusion injury, CP-532,903 provided no benefit in studies using mice with genetic disruption of the A(3)AR gene, A(3) knockout (KO) mice. In isolated heart studies, protection provided by CP-532,903 and ischemic preconditioning induced by three brief ischemia/reperfusion cycles were lost in Kir6.2 KO mice lacking expression of the pore-forming subunit of the sarcolemmal ATP-sensitive potassium (K(ATP)) channel. Whole-cell patch-clamp recordings provided evidence that the A(3)AR is functionally coupled to the sarcolemmal K(ATP) channel in murine cardiomyocytes. We conclude that CP-532,903 is a highly selective agonist of the mouse A(3)AR that protects against ischemia/reperfusion injury by activating sarcolemmal K(ATP) channels.

A3 and P2Y2 receptors control the recruitment of neutrophils to the lungs in a mouse model of sepsis.

We have recently shown that A3 adenosine receptors and P2Y2 purinergic receptors play an important role in neutrophil chemotaxis. Chemotaxis of neutrophils to sites of infections is critical for immune defense. However, excessive accumulation of neutrophils in the lungs can cause acute lung tissue damage. Here we assessed the role of A3 and P2Y2 receptors in neutrophil sequestration to the lungs in a mouse model of sepsis. Sepsis was induced by cecal ligation and puncture (CLP) using adult male C57BL/6J mice (wild type [WT]), homozygous A3 receptor knockout (A3KO) mice, and P2Y2 receptor knockout (P2Y2KO) mice. Animals were killed 2, 4, 6, or 8 h after CLP, and peritoneal lavage fluid and blood were collected. Lungs were removed, and neutrophil infiltration was evaluated using elastase as a marker. Leukocyte and bacterial counts in peritoneal lavage fluid and blood samples were determined. Survival after sepsis was determined in a separate group. Leukocyte counts in the peritoneum were lower in A3KO and P2Y2KO mice than in WT mice. Conversely, initial leukocyte counts in the peripheral blood were higher in KO mice than in WT mice. Neutrophil sequestration to the lungs reached a maximum 2 h after CLP and remained significantly higher in WT mice compared with A3KO and P2Y2KO mice (P < 0.001). Survival after 24 h was significantly lower in WT mice (37.5%) than in A3KO or P2Y2KO mice (82.5%; P < 0.05). These data suggest that A3 and P2Y2 receptors are involved in the influx of neutrophils into the lungs after sepsis. Thus, pharmaceutical approaches that target these receptors might be useful to control acute lung tissue injury in sepsis.

Involvement of COX-1 in A3 adenosine receptor-mediated contraction through endothelium in mice aorta.

We investigated whether A(3) adenosine receptor (A(3)AR) is involved in endothelium-mediated contraction through cyclooxygenases (COXs) with the use of wild-type (WT) and A(3) knockout (A(3)KO) mice aorta. A(3)AR-selective agonist, Cl-IBMECA, produced a concentration-dependent contraction (EC(50): 2.9 +/- 0.2 x 10(-9) M) in WT mouse aorta with intact endothelium (+E) and negligible effects in A(3)KO +E aorta. At 10(-7) M, contractions produced by Cl-IBMECA were 29% in WT +E, while being insignificant in A(3)KO +E aorta. Cl-IBMECA-induced responses were abolished in endothelium-denuded tissues (-E), in both WT and A(3)KO aorta. A(3)AR gene and protein expression were reduced by 74 and 72% (P < 0.05), respectively, in WT -E compared with WT +E aorta, while being undetected in A(3)KO +E/-E aorta. Indomethacin (nonspecific COXs blocker, 10(-5) M), SC-560 (specific COX-1 blocker, 10(-8) M), SQ 29549 (thromboxane prostanoid receptor antagonist, 10(-6) M), and furegrelate (thromboxane synthase inhibitor, 10(-5) M) inhibited Cl-IBMECA-induced contraction significantly. Cl-IBMECA-induced thromboxane B(2) production was also attenuated significantly by indomethacin, SC-560, and furegrelate in WT +E aorta, while having negligible effects in A(3)KO +E aorta. NS-398 (specific COX-2 blocker) produced negligible inhibition of Cl-IBMECA-induced contraction in both WT +E and A(3)KO +E aorta. Cl-IBMECA-induced increase in COX-1 and thromboxane prostanoid receptor expression were significantly inhibited by MRS1523, a specific A(3)AR antagonist in WT +E aorta. Expression of both A(3)AR and COX-1 was located mostly on endothelium of WT and A(3)KO +E aorta. These results demonstrate for the first time the involvement of COX-1 pathway in A(3)AR-mediated contraction via endothelium.

Suppression of inflammation by low-dose methotrexate is mediated by adenosine A2A receptor but not A3 receptor activation in thioglycollate-induced peritonitis.

Prior studies demonstrate that adenosine, acting at one or more of its receptors, mediates the anti-inflammatory effects of methotrexate in animal models of both acute and chronic inflammation. Both adenosine A2A and A3 receptors contribute to the anti-inflammatory effects of methotrexate treatment in the air pouch model of inflammation, and the regulation of inflammation by these two receptors differs at the cellular level. Because different factors may regulate inflammation at different sites we examined the effect of low-dose weekly methotrexate treatment (0.75 mg/kg/week) in a model of acute peritoneal inflammation in adenosine A2A receptor knockout mice and A3 receptor knockout mice and their wild-type littermates. Following intraperitoneal injection of thioglycollate there was no significant difference in the number or type of leukocytes, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) and IL-10 levels that accumulated in the thioglycollate-induced peritoneal exudates in adenosine A2A knockout mice or wild-type control mice. In contrast, there were more leukocytes, TNF-alpha and IL-10 in the exudates of the adenosine A3 receptor-deficient mice. Low-dose, weekly methotrexate treatment increased the adenosine concentration in the peritoneal exudates of all mice studied, and reduced the leukocyte accumulation in the wild-type mice and A3 receptor knockout mice but not in the A2A receptor knockout mice. Methotrexate reduced exudate levels of TNF-alpha in the wild-type mice and A3 receptor knockout mice but not the A2A receptor knockout mice. More strikingly, IL-10, a critical regulator of peritoneal inflammation, was increased in the methotrexate-treated wild-type mice and A3 knockout mice but decreased in the A2A knockout mice. Dexamethasone, an agent that suppresses inflammation by a different mechanism, was similarly effective in wild-type mice, A2A mice and A3 knockout mice. These findings provide further evidence that adenosine is a potent regulator of inflammation that mediates the anti-inflammatory effects of methotrexate. Moreover, these data provide strong evidence that the anti-inflammatory effects of methotrexate and adenosine are mediated by different receptors in different inflammatory loci, an observation that may explain why inflammatory diseases of some organs but not of other organs respond to methotrexate therapy.

Differential requirement for A2a and A3 adenosine receptors for the protective effect of inosine in vivo.

Inosine is an endogenous nucleoside with immunosuppressive properties that is known to inhibit the accumulation of proinflammatory cytokines and protect mice from endotoxin-induced inflammation and lung tissue damage. There are no known receptors specific for inosine, but A3 adenosine receptors (A3Rs) have been shown to bind inosine, resulting in mast cell degranulation and increased vascular permeability. The present study specifically addresses the requirement for A2aR and/or A3R for the protective effect of inosine in 2 experimental in vivo models of inflammatory disease. The data show that A3R is essential for protection against ConA-induced fulminant hepatitis since only A3R-expressing mice were protected by inosine whereas wild-type and A2aR-deficient mice exhibited severe liver damage even after administration of inosine. In addition, we show in a model of LPS-induced endotoxemia that inosine protected both A2aR-/- and A3R-/- mice from inflammation, but not A2aA3R double-null mice, indicating that in this model both A2aR and A3R were used by inosine. Thus, we demonstrate that A2a and A3 adenosine receptors are differentially utilized by inosine for the down-regulation of tissue damage under different inflammatory conditions in vivo.