Maternal inheritance of functional centrioles in two parthenogenetic nematodes.

Centrioles are the core constituent of centrosomes, microtubule-organizing centers involved in directing mitotic spindle assembly and chromosome segregation in animal cells. In sexually reproducing species, centrioles degenerate during oogenesis and female meiosis is usually acentrosomal. Centrioles are retained during male meiosis and, in most species, are reintroduced with the sperm during fertilization, restoring centriole numbers in embryos. In contrast, the presence, origin, and function of centrioles in parthenogenetic species is unknown. We found that centrioles are maternally inherited in two species of asexual parthenogenetic nematodes and identified two different strategies for maternal inheritance evolved in the two species. In Rhabditophanes diutinus, centrioles organize the poles of the meiotic spindle and are inherited by both the polar body and embryo. In Disploscapter pachys, the two pairs of centrioles remain close together and are inherited by the embryo only. Our results suggest that maternally-inherited centrioles organize the embryonic spindle poles and act as a symmetry-breaking cue to induce embryo polarization. Thus, in these parthenogenetic nematodes, centrioles are maternally-inherited and functionally replace their sperm-inherited counterparts in sexually reproducing species.

PHASMARHABDITIS CALIFORNICA (NEMATODA: RHABDITIDAE) HAS REDUCED ESTABLISHMENT SUCCESS AND PROGENY PRODUCTION IN THE PRESENCE OF PRISTIONCHUS ENTOMOPHAGUS (NEMATODA: DIPLOGASTRIDAE).

Phasmarhabditis (syn. Pellioditis) californica is a facultative parasite that has been marketed as a popular biocontrol agent against pestiferous slugs in England, Scotland, and Wales. The necromenic nematode Pristionchus entomophagus has also been recovered from slugs infected with Ph. californica. In this study, we experimentally investigated the outcome of single and mixed applications of Pr. entomophagus and Ph. californica on the slug Deroceras reticulatum (Müller). Host mortality was comparable for single and mixed applications of Ph. californica, with time to death significantly shorter in both treatment groups compared with controls. However, trials with Pr. entomophagus alone did not cause any significant host mortality relative to controls. Compared with the single Ph. californica applications, mixed applications resulted in 67% fewer infective juveniles establishing in the host, and subsequently far fewer infective juveniles were recovered in the next generation. In contrast, the establishment rate and progeny production in Pr. entomophagus were not impacted by the presence of Ph. californica (i.e., mixed applications). Hence, the presence of Pr. entomophagus had a deleterious effect on the establishment success and progeny production of Ph. californica. Our findings reveal an asymmetrical, antagonistic interaction between Ph. californica and Pr. entomophagus and highlight the importance of understanding the ecological relationships between co-occurring species. A decrease in parasite establishment success and progeny production has the potential to directly impact the persistence, sustainability, and efficacy of Ph. californica as a biological control agent.

Biocontrol potential of six Heterorhabditis bacteriophora strains isolated in the Azores Archipelago.

Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) are closely associated with Popillia japonica and potentially used as their biological control agents, although field results proved inconsistent and evoked a continual pursuit of native EPNs more adapted to the environment. Therefore, we surveyed the Azorean Archipelago to isolate new strains of Heterorhabditis bacteriophora and to evaluate their virulence against the model organism Galleria mellonella under laboratory conditions. Six strains were obtained from pasture and coastal environments and both nematode and symbiont bacteria were molecularly identified. The bioassays revealed that Az172, Az186, and Az171 presented high virulence across the determination of a lethal dose (LD50) and short exposure time experiments with a comparable performance to Az29. After 72 hours, these virulent strains presented a mean determination of a lethal dose of 11 infective juveniles cm-2, a lethal time (LT50) of 34 hours, and achieved 40% mortality after an initial exposure time of only 60 minutes. Az170 exhibited an intermediate performance, whereas Az179 and Az180 were classified as low virulent strains. However, both strains presented the highest reproductive potential with means of 1700 infective juveniles/mg of larvae. The bioassays of the native EPNs obtained revealed that these strains hold the potential to be used in biological control initiatives targeting P. japonica because of their high virulence and locally adapted to environmental conditions.

Heterorhabditis indica (Nematoda: Rhabditida) a possible new biological control agent against the vector of Chagas disease.

Chagas disease is a zoonosis caused by the protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi and transmitted through the feces of triatomines, mainly in Latin America. Since the 1950s, chemical insecticides have been the primary method for controlling these triatomines, yet resistance has emerged, prompting the exploration of alternative approaches. The objective of this research was to test the capacity of the entomopathogenic nematodes Heterorhabditis indica and its symbiotic bacteria Photorhabdus luminescens, to produce mortality of Triatoma dimidiata a key vector of T. cruzi in Mexico under laboratory conditions. Two bioassays were conducted. In the first bioassay, the experimental unit was a 250 ml plastic jar with 100 g of sterile soil and three adult T. dimidiata. Three nematode quantities were tested: 2250, 4500, and 9000 nematodes per 100 g of sterile soil (n/100 g) per jar, with 3 replicates for each concentration and 1 control per concentration (1 jar with 100 g of sterile soil and 3 T. dimidiata without nematodes). The experimental unit of the second bioassay was a 500 ml plastic jar with 100 g of sterile soil and 4 adult T. dimidiata. This bioassay included 5, 50, 500, and 5000 n/100 g of sterile soil per jar, with 3 replicates of each quantity and 1 control per quantity. Data were analyzed using Kaplan-Meyer survival analysis. Electron microscopy was used to assess the presence of nematodes and tissue damage in T. dimidiata. The results of the first bioassay demonstrated that the nematode induced an accumulated average mortality ranging from 55.5 % (2250 n/100 g) to 100 % (4500 and 9000 n/100 g) within 144 h. In the second bioassay, the 5000 n/100 g concentration yielded 87.5 % mortality at 86 h, but a concentration as small as 500 n/100 g caused 75 % mortality from 84 h onwards. Survival analysis indicated higher T. dimidiata mortality with increased nematode quantities, with significant differences between the 4500, 5000, and 9000 n/100 g and controls. Electron microscopy revealed the presence of nematodes and its presumably symbiotic bacteria in the digestive system of T. dimidiata. Based on these analyses, we assert that the H. indica and P. luminescens complex causes mortality in adult T. dimidiata under laboratory conditions.

In an arms race between host and parasite, a lungworm's ability to infect a toad is determined by host susceptibility not parasite preference.

Evolutionary arms races can alter both parasite infectivity and host resistance, and it is difficult to separate the effects of these twin determinants of infection outcomes. We used a co-introduced, invasive host-parasite system (the lungworm Rhabdias pseudosphaerocephala and cane toads Rhinella marina), where rapid adaptation and dispersal have led to population differences in infection resistance. We quantified behavioural responses of parasite larvae to skin-chemical cues of toads from different invasive populations, and rates at which juvenile hosts became infected following standardized exposure to lungworms. Chemical cues from toad skin altered host-seeking behaviour by parasites, similarly among populations. The number of infection attempts (parasite larvae entering the host's body) also did not differ between populations, but rates of successful infection (establishment of adult worm in host lungs) were higher for range-edge toads than for range-core conspecifics. Thus, lower resistance to parasite infection in range-edge juvenile toads appears to be due to less effective immune defences of the host rather than differential behavioural responses of the parasite. In this ongoing host-parasite arms race, changing outcomes appear to be driven by shifts in host immunocompetence.

Natural variation in host-finding behaviour of gastropod parasitic nematodes (Phasmarhabditis spp.) exposed to host-associated cues.

The gastropod parasitic nematode Phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita has been formulated into a successful biological control agent (Nemaslug®, strain DMG0001) used to kill slugs on farms and gardens. When applied to soil, P. hermaphrodita uses slug mucus and faeces to find potential hosts. However, there is little information on what cues other species of Phasmarhabditis (P. neopapillosa and P. californica) use to find hosts and whether there is natural variation in their ability to chemotax to host cues. Therefore, using chemotaxis assays, we exposed nine wild isolates of P. hermaphrodita, five isolates of P. neopapillosa and three isolates of P. californica to mucus from the pestiferous slug host Deroceras invadens, as well as 1% and 5% hyaluronic acid - a component of slug mucus that is highly attractive to these nematodes. We found P. hermaphrodita (DMG0010) and P. californica (DMG0018) responded significantly more to D. invadens mucus and 1% hyaluronic acid than other strains. Also, P. hermaphrodita (DMG0007), P. neopapillosa (DMG0015) and P. californica (DMG0017) were superior at locating 5% hyaluronic acid compared to other isolates of the same genera. Ultimately, there is natural variation in chemoattraction in Phasmarhabditis nematodes, with some strains responding significantly better to host cues than others.

Phasmarhabditis zhejiangensis sp. nov. (Nematoda: Rhabditidae), a new rhabditid nematode from Zhejiang, China.

A new nematode species of the genus Phasmarhabditis was isolated from the body surface of a slug (Philomycus bilineatus Benson, PB). Morphological and molecular analyses confirmed this nematode as a new species. The nematode was named Phasmarhabditis zhejiangensis sp. nov. (Nematoda: Rhabditidae) and is dioecious. In males, the open bursa with genital papillae is characterized by the formula 1-1-1-2-1-3, and the spicule length is 58µm. In female, the vulva is located approximately in the middle of the body. The nematode belongs to papillosa group because of its tail shape pointed with filiform tip. The phasmids are rod-shaped. The posterior anus is slightly swollen. P. zhejiangensis was further characterized by internal transcribed spacer (ITS), 18S rDNA and 28S rDNA sequences. After the sequencing results were compared with sequences available from the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI), the maximum similarities of ITS, 18S and 28S sequences were 89.81%, 96.22% and 95.28%, respectively. Phylogenetic analyses placed Phasmarhabditis zhejiangensis sp. nov. in the genus Phasmarhabditis.

Diversification and hybrid incompatibility in auto-pseudogamous species of Mesorhabditis nematodes.

BACKGROUND: Pseudogamy is a reproductive system in which females rely on the sperm of males to activate their oocytes, generally parasitizing males of other species, but do not use the sperm DNA. The nematode Mesorhabditis belari uses a specific form of pseudogamy, where females produce their own males as a source of sperm. Males develop from rare eggs with true fertilization, while females arise by gynogenesis. Males thus do not contribute their genome to the female offspring. Here, we explored the diversity of reproductive mode within the Mesorhabditis genus and addressed species barriers in pseudogamous species. RESULTS: To this end, we established a collection of over 60 Mesorhabditis strains from soil and rotting vegetal matter. We found that males from pseudogamous species displayed a reduced size of their body, male tail and sperm cells compared to males of sexual Mesorhabditis species, as expected for males that face little competition. Using rDNA sequences and crosses, we could define 11 auto-pseudogamous biological species, with closely related species pairs and a possible single origin of pseudogamy in the Mesorhabditis genus. Most crosses between males and females of different species did not even produce female progeny. This surprising species barrier in pseudogamous egg activation was pre or postcopulatory depending on the species pair. In the latter case, when hybrid embryos were produced, most arrested before the first embryonic cell division. Hybrid incompatibility between auto-pseudogamous species was due to defective interaction between sperm and oocyte as well as defective reconstitution of zygotic centrosomes. CONCLUSIONS: We established a collection of sexual and pseudo-sexual species which offer an ideal framework to explore the origin and consequences of transition to asexuality. Our results demonstrate that speciation occurs in the pseudogamous state. Whereas genomic conflicts are responsible for hybrid incompatibility in sexual species, we here reveal that centrosomes constitute key organelles in the establishment of species barrier.

Photorhabdus: a tale of contrasting interactions.

Different model systems have, over the years, contributed to our current understanding of the molecular mechanisms underpinning the various types of interaction between bacteria and their animal hosts. The genus Photorhabdus comprises Gram-negative insect pathogenic bacteria that are normally found as symbionts that colonize the gut of the infective juvenile stage of soil-dwelling nematodes from the family Heterorhabditis. The nematodes infect susceptible insects and release the bacteria into the insect haemolymph where the bacteria grow, resulting in the death of the insect. At this stage the nematodes feed on the bacterial biomass and, following several rounds of reproduction, the nematodes develop into infective juveniles that leave the insect cadaver in search of new hosts. Therefore Photorhabdus has three distinct and obligate roles to play during this life-cycle: (1) Photorhabdus must kill the insect host; (2) Photorhabdus must be capable of supporting nematode growth and development; and (3) Photorhabdus must be able to colonize the gut of the next generation of infective juveniles before they leave the insect cadaver. In this review I will discuss how genetic analysis has identified key genes involved in mediating, and regulating, the interaction between Photorhabdus and each of its invertebrate hosts. These studies have resulted in the characterization of several new families of toxins and a novel inter-kingdom signalling molecule and have also uncovered an important role for phase variation in the regulation of these different roles.

Diet composition has a differential effect on immune tolerance in insect larvae exposed to Mesorhabditis belari, Enterobacter hormaechei and its metabolites.

In insects, diet plays an important role in growth and development. Insects can vary their diet composition based on their physiological needs. In this study we tested the influence of diet composition involving varying concentrations of macronutrients and zinc on the immune-tolerance following parasite and pathogen exposure in Spodoptera litura larvae. We also tested the insecticidal potential of Mesorhabditis belari, Enterobacter hormaechei and its secondary metabolites on Spodoptera litura larvae. The results shows macronutrient composition does not directly affect the larval tolerance to nematode infection. However, Zinc supplemented diet improved the immune tolerance. While larvae exposed to bacterial infection performed better on carbohydrate rich diet. Secondary metabolites from bacteria produced an immune response in dose dependent mortality. The study shows that the larvae maintained on different diet composition show varied immune tolerance which is based on the type of infection.

Efficacy of chemical and biological slug control measures in response to watering and earthworms.

The Spanish Slug (Arion vulgaris, formerly known as Arion lusitanicus) is an invasive agricultural and horticultural pest species that causes great damages all over Europe. Numerous options to control this slug are on the market; among the most commonly used are slug pellets containing the active ingredients metaldehyde or iron-III-phosphate and the application of parasitic nematodes (Phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita). These control measures potentially also affect non-target organisms like earthworms (Lumbricidae), which themselves can directly and/or indirectly alter a plant's susceptibility against slug herbivory. Also, the efficacy of slug control treatments is expected to be influenced by watering. In a greenhouse experiment we investigated the influence of daily watering vs. every third day watering on slug control efficacy and potential interactions with earthworms. We found significant interactions between watering and slug control efficacy. Slug herbivory and biomass decreased after application of slug pellets; metaldehyde was more effective under less frequent watering while iron-III-phosphate was unaffected by watering. Parasitic nematodes had no effect on slug herbivory and biomass production. Earthworm activity was reduced with less frequent watering but did not interact with slug control. We conclude that watering patterns should be considered when choosing slug control measures.

Males as somatic investment in a parthenogenetic nematode.

We report the reproductive strategy of the nematode Mesorhabditis belari This species produces only 9% males, whose sperm is necessary to fertilize and activate the eggs. However, most of the fertilized eggs develop without using the sperm DNA and produce female individuals. Only in 9% of eggs is the male DNA utilized, producing sons. We found that mixing of parental genomes only gives rise to males because the Y-bearing sperm of males are much more competent than the X-bearing sperm for penetrating the eggs. In this previously unrecognized strategy, asexual females produce few sexual males whose genes never reenter the female pool. Here, production of males is of interest only if sons are more likely to mate with their sisters. Using game theory, we show that in this context, the production of 9% males by M. belari females is an evolutionary stable strategy.

Gastropod parasitic nematodes (Phasmarhabditis sp.) are attracted to hyaluronic acid in snail mucus by cGMP signalling.

Phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita is a parasitic nematode of terrestrial gastropods that has been formulated into a biological control agent for farmers and gardeners to kill slugs and snails. In order to locate slugs it is attracted to mucus, faeces and volatile cues; however, there is no information about whether these nematodes are attracted to snail cues. It is also unknown how wild isolates of P. hermaphrodita or different Phasmarhabditis species behave when exposed to gastropod cues. Therefore, we investigated whether P. hermaphrodita (commercial and wild isolated strains), P. neopapillosa and P. californica were attracted to mucus from several common snail species (Cepaea nemoralis, Cepaea hortensis, Arianta arbustorum and Cornu aspersum). We also examined whether snails (C. aspersum) collected from different locations around the UK differed in their attractiveness to wild isolates of P. hermaphrodita. Furthermore, we also investigated what properties of snail mucus the nematodes were attracted to, including hyaluronic acid and metal salts (FeSO4, ZnSO4, CuSO4 and MgSO4). We found that the commercial strain of P. hermaphrodita responded poorly to snail mucus compared to wild isolated strains, and C. aspersum collected from different parts of the UK differed in their attractiveness to the nematodes. We found that Phasmarhabditis nematodes were weakly attracted to all metals tested but were strongly attracted to hyaluronic acid. In a final experiment we also showed that pharmacological manipulation of cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) increased chemoattraction to snail mucus, suggesting that the protein kinase EGL-4 may be responsible for Phasmarhabditis sp. chemoattraction.

Polyparasitism of Rhabditis Axei and Enterobius Vermicularis in a Child from Beijing, China.

BACKGROUND: Rhabditis (Rhabditellae) axei is a common species in soil, which has been reported repeatedly in human urine and the digestive system. Humans exposed to sewage or mistakenly polluted sewage is the cause of larvae infecting the digestive tract or via the urethra. We reported a patient infected with Rhabditis axei and Enterobius Vermicularis. The migration of the nematodes caused true signs of hematuria, diarrhea, and high eosinophilia. METHODS: Stool and urine are collected to detect parasite eggs and genotype. Specimens are sent for polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based species identification. Amplification of the 18S ribosomal RNA gene was performed by PCR as described [1]. RESULTS: Morphological features and PCR amplification of the 18S ribosomal RNA gene confirmed Rhabditis axei and Enterobius vermicularis as the pathogen of infection. CONCLUSIONS: Herein, we presented a case that confirmed Rhabditis axei and Enterobius vermicularis infection in humans can be associated with high eosinophilia.

Living apart-together: Microhabitat differentiation of cryptic nematode species in a saltmarsh habitat.

Coexistence of highly similar species is at odds with ecological theory of competition; coexistence, then, requires stabilizing mechanisms such as differences in ecological niche. In the bacterivore nematode Litoditis marina species complex, which occurs associated with macro-algae, four cryptic lineages (Pm I-IV) co-occur in the field along the south-western coast and estuaries of The Netherlands. Here we investigate the temporal and/or spatial niche differentiation in their natural environment using a qPCR-based detection and relative quantification method. We collected different algal species (i.e. two Fucus species and Ulva sp.) and separated algal structures (i.e. receptacula, thalli, non-fertile tips and bladders) at different sampling months and times (i.e. twice per sampling month), to examine differences in microhabitat use between coexisting L. marina species. Results demonstrate that the cryptic species composition varied among different algal species and algal structures, which was also subject to temporal shifts. Pm I dominated on Fucus spp., Pm II showed dominance on Ulva sp., while Pm III overall had the lowest frequencies. Microhabitat partitioning was most pronounced between the two cryptic species which had similar microbiomes (Pm I and Pm II), and less so between the two species which had significantly different microbiomes (Pm I and Pm III), suggesting that species which share the same microhabitats may avoid competition through resource partitioning. The interplay of microhabitat differentiation and temporal dynamics among the cryptic species of L. marina implies that there is a complex interaction between biotic components and abiotic factors which contributes to their coexistence in the field.

Refined ab initio gene predictions of Heterorhabditis bacteriophora using RNA-seq.

Interest has recently grown in developing the entomopathogenic nematode Heterorhabditis bacteriophora as a model to genetically dissect the process of parasitic infection. Despite the availability of a full genome assembly, there is substantial variation in gene model accuracy. Here, a methodology is presented for leveraging RNA-seq evidence to generate improved annotations using ab initio gene prediction software. After alignment of reads and subsequent generation of a RNA-seq supported annotation, the new gene prediction models were verified on a selection of genes by comparison with sequenced 5' and 3' rapid amplification of cDNA ends products. By utilising a whole transcriptome for genome annotation, the current reference annotation was enriched, demonstrating the importance of coupling transcriptional data with genome assemblies.

Sex- and Gamete-Specific Patterns of X Chromosome Segregation in a Trioecious Nematode.

Three key steps in meiosis allow diploid organisms to produce haploid gametes: (1) homologous chromosomes (homologs) pair and undergo crossovers; (2) homologs segregate to opposite poles; and (3) sister chromatids segregate to opposite poles. The XX/XO sex determination system found in many nematodes [1] facilitates the study of meiosis because variation is easily recognized [2-4]. Here we show that meiotic segregation of X chromosomes in the trioecious nematode Auanema rhodensis [5] varies according to sex (hermaphrodite, female, or male) and type of gametogenesis (oogenesis or spermatogenesis). In this species, XO males exclusively produce X-bearing sperm [6, 7]. The unpaired X precociously separates into sister chromatids, which co-segregate with the autosome set to generate a functional haplo-X sperm. The other set of autosomes is discarded into a residual body. Here we explore the X chromosome behavior in female and hermaphrodite meioses. Whereas X chromosomes segregate following the canonical pattern during XX female oogenesis to yield haplo-X oocytes, during XX hermaphrodite oogenesis they segregate to the first polar body to yield nullo-X oocytes. Thus, crosses between XX hermaphrodites and males yield exclusively male progeny. During hermaphrodite spermatogenesis, the sister chromatids of the X chromosomes separate during meiosis I, and homologous X chromatids segregate to the functional sperm to create diplo-X sperm. Given these intra-species, intra-individual, and intra-gametogenesis variations in the meiotic program, A. rhodensis is an ideal model for studying the plasticity of meiosis and how it can be modulated.

Electrophysiology of the rhythmic defecation program in nematode Heterorhabditis megidis.

The nervous system controls most rhythmic behaviors, with a remarkable exception. In Caenorhabditis elegans periodic defecation rhythm does not appear to involve the nervous system. Such oscillations are studied in detail with genetic and molecular biology tools. The small size of C. elegans cells impairs the use of standard electrophysiological methods. We studied a similar rhythmic pacemaker in the noticeably larger gut cells of Heterorhabditis megidis nematode. H. megidis defecation cycle is driven by a central pattern generator (CPG) associated with unusual all-or-none hyper-polarization "action potential". The CPG cycle period depends on the membrane potential and CPG cycling also persisted in experiments where the membrane potential of gut cells was continuously clamped at steady voltage levels. The usual excitable tissue description does not include the endoderm or imply the generation of hyper-polarization spikes. The nematode gut cells activity calls for a reevaluation of the excitable cells definition.

Isolation and identification of Xenorhabdus and Photorhabdus bacteria associated with entomopathogenic nematodes and their larvicidal activity against Aedes aegypti.

BACKGROUND: Aedes aegypti is a potential vector of West Nile, Japanese encephalitis, chikungunya, dengue and Zika viruses. Alternative control measurements of the vector are needed to overcome the problems of environmental contamination and chemical resistance. Xenorhabdus and Photorhabdus are symbionts in the intestine of entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) Steinernema spp. and Heterorhabditis spp. These bacteria are able to produce a broad range of bioactive compounds including antimicrobial, antiparasitic, cytotoxic and insecticidal compounds. The objectives of this study were to identify Xenorhabdus and Photorhabdus isolated from EPNs in upper northern Thailand and to study their larvicidal activity against Ae. aegypti larvae. RESULTS: A total of 60 isolates of symbiotic bacteria isolated from EPNs consisted of Xenorhabdus (32 isolates) and Photorhabdus (28 isolates). Based on recA gene sequencing, BLASTN and phylogenetic analysis, 27 isolates of Xenorhabdus were identical and closely related to X. stockiae, 4 isolates were identical to X. miraniensis, and one isolate was identical to X. ehlersii. Twenty-seven isolates of Photorhabdus were closely related to P. luminescens akhurstii and P. luminescens hainanensis, and only one isolate was identical and closely related to P. luminescens laumondii. Xenorhabdus and Photorhabdus were lethal to Ae aegypti larvae. Xenorhabdus ehlersii bMH9.2_TH showed 100% efficiency for killing larvae of both fed and unfed conditions, the highest for control of Ae. aegypti larvae and X. stockiae (bLPA18.4_TH) was likely to be effective in killing Ae. aegypti larvae given the mortality rates above 60% at 72 h and 96 h. CONCLUSIONS: The common species in the study area are X. stockiae, P. luminescens akhurstii, and P. luminescens hainanensis. Three symbiotic associations identified included P. luminescens akhurstii-H. gerrardi, P. luminescens hainanensis-H. gerrardi and X. ehlersii-S. Scarabaei which are new observations of importance to our knowledge of the biodiversity of, and relationships between, EPNs and their symbiotic bacteria. Based on the biological assay, X. ehlersii bMH9.2_TH begins to kill Ae. aegypti larvae within 48 h and has the most potential as a pathogen to the larvae. These data indicate that X. ehlersii may be an alternative biological control agent for Ae. aegypti and other mosquitoes.

Nematodes that associate with terrestrial molluscs as definitive hosts, including Phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita (Rhabditida: Rhabditidae) and its development as a biological molluscicide.

Terrestrial molluscs (Mollusca: Gastropoda) are important economic pests worldwide, causing extensive damage to a variety of crop types, and posing a health risk to both humans and wildlife. Current knowledge indicates that there are eight nematode families that associate with molluscs as definitive hosts, including Agfidae, Alaninematidae, Alloionematidae, Angiostomatidae, Cosmocercidae, Diplogastridae, Mermithidae and Rhabditidae. To date, Phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita (Schneider, 1859) Andrássy, 1983 (Rhabditida: Rhabditidae) is the only nematode that has been developed as a biological molluscicide. The nematode, which was commercially released in 1994 by MicroBio Ltd, Littlehampton, UK (formally Becker Underwood, now BASF) under the tradename Nemaslug®, is now sold in 15 different European countries. This paper reviews nematodes isolated from molluscs, with specially detailed information on the life cycle, host range, commercialization, natural distribution, mass production and field application of P. hermaphrodita.