Sex and gender differences in lower limb chronic exertional compartment syndrome: a systematic review.

OBJECTIVES: Chronic exertional compartment syndrome (CECS) is a cause of exertional leg pain and has been reported in varying frequencies in males and females. Currently, it is unclear whether there are significant sex and gender differences in lower-limb CECS. Delineating sex and gender differences is vital in determining the causes of CECS and best treatments. This systematic review aimed to determine the sex/gender distribution of CECS and to assess for sex and gender differences in CECS diagnosis and outcomes. METHODS: PubMed (Medline), Cochrane Library, and EMBASE databases were searched for studies that were published from January 2000-March 2022 and reported lower-limb CECS data in males and/or females. Data on CECS diagnosis (intracompartmental pressures) and outcomes (e.g. post-surgical return-to-sport, need for re-operation) with sex/gender breakdowns were extracted. The sex/gender distribution of CECS and prevalence of CECS by sex/gender were calculated. RESULTS: Forty-one studies were included in the systematic review; there were 27 retrospective reviews, 8 prospective studies, and 6 retrospective studies with prospective follow-ups. Thirty studies involved surgical populations. Sex/gender distribution of CECS was calculated using data from 24 studies; 51% were female. Prevalence of CECS was available in five studies and ranged widely for males (54%-73%) and females (43%-65%). Intracompartmental pressure data varied by sex/gender. Male athletes were more likely than female athletes to return to sport following surgery for CECS, but variations in all other post-surgical outcomes were observed between sexes and genders in the general population. CONCLUSION: Females represented 51% of the patients who were diagnosed with CECS among studies. Most CECS diagnosis and outcomes data varied by sex/gender, except for post-surgical outcomes data in athletes, which demonstrated that males had higher rates of return to sport than females. Future studies are needed to examine factors contributing to sex and gender differences in CECS diagnosis and outcomes.

The Pressure Is Rising: Evaluation and Treatment of Chronic Exertional Compartment Syndrome.

ABSTRACT: Chronic exertional compartment syndrome is a condition that typically affects athletic/active individuals. Chronic exertional compartment syndrome predominantly affects the lower leg; however, there are cases involving the hand, forearm, foot, and thigh. The signs and symptoms of chronic exertional compartment syndrome are severe pain, tightness, cramping, muscle weakness, and paresthesias during participation in exercise. Dynamic intramuscular compartmental pressure (preexertion and postexertion) is the standard diagnostic test. Although other imaging modalities, such as radiography, ultrasound, and magnetic resonance imaging are typically incorporated to rule out other pathologies. In addition, these modalities are being utilized to limit invasiveness of the diagnostic experience. Initial care commonly involves conservative treatment, such as physical therapy, modifications of patient's exercise technique, foot orthoses, and various procedures over a period of 3 to 6 months. Recalcitrant cases may be referred for surgical intervention (fasciotomy), which has inconclusive head-to-head data with conservative management with regard to return to prior sport and specific activity level.

Chronic Exertional Compartment Syndrome of the Foot.

Active individuals can experience exercise-induced pain along the medial, plantar central, and plantarmedial proximal arch. In many cases, these symptoms are consistent with conditions involving the plantar fascia, posterior tibial tendon, or entrapment of branches of the posterior tibial nerve. Unlike these other conditions, chronic exertional compartment syndrome (CECS) of the foot can be aggravated by interventions that impart any pressure or compression to the foot. Practitioners should have a high index of suspicion for CECS when classic treatments tend to aggravate patient's symptoms.

A Comparison of Two Models Predicting the Presence of Chronic Exertional Compartment Syndrome.

Clinical history and physical examination are usually not sufficient to diagnose leg chronic exertional compartment syndrome (CECS). Two predictive clinical models have been proposed. The first model by De Bruijn et al. is displayed as a nomogram that predicts the probability of CECS according to a risk score. The second model by Fouasson-Chailloux et al. combines two signs (post-effort muscle hardness on palpation or hernia). To evaluate those models, we performed a prospective study on patients who were referred for possible CECS. 201 patients underwent intra-compartmental pressure at 1-min post-exercise (CECS if ≥ 30 mmHg) - 115 had CECS. For the De Bruijn et al. model, the risk score was 7.5±2.2 in the CECS group and 4.6±1.7 in the non-CECS group (p<0.001) with an area under the ROC curve of 0.85. The model accuracy was 80% with a sensitivity of 82% and a specificity of 78%. Concerning Fouasson-Chailloux et al. model, the accuracy was 86%; the sensitivity and the specificity were 75 and 98%, respectively. The De Bruijn et al. model was a good collective model but less efficient in individual application. In patients having both muscle hardness and hernia, we could clinically make the diagnosis of CECS.

Significantly lower intramuscular pressure in the posterior and lateral compartments compared with the anterior compartment suggests alterations of the diagnostic criteria for chronic exertional compartment syndrome in the lower leg.

PURPOSE: To investigate distributions and identify possible differences in intramuscular pressure (IMP) values at 1 min post-exercise between the four muscle compartments of the lower leg, in patients with exertional leg pain with or without chronic exertional compartment syndrome (CECS). METHODS: A consecutive series of patients seeking orthopaedic consultation for exertional leg pain underwent IMP measurements between 2009 and 2018. The diagnosis of CECS was confirmed (n = 442) or ruled out (n = 422), based on the patient's history, clinical examination, and IMP measurements. RESULTS: The median (range) 1 min post-exercise IMP values in affected compartments in the patients diagnosed with CECS were 33 (25-53) mmHg (deep posterior), 35 (27-54) mmHg (superficial posterior), 40 (26-106) mmHg (lateral), and 47 (24-120) mmHg (anterior). In patients with no CECS, the median (range) 1 min post-exercise IMP values in the compartments were 12 (2-28) mmHg (deep posterior), 12 (2-27) mmHg (superficial posterior), 14 (2-26) mmHg (lateral), and 18 (4-34) mmHg (anterior). The IMP was significantly lower in the lateral and both posterior compartments than in the anterior compartment in both patients diagnosed with CECS and patients without CECS. CONCLUSION: The study demonstrates significantly lower IMP values in the posterior and lateral compartments compared to the anterior compartments. These findings suggest a lowering of the IMP 1 min post-exercise cut-off value for diagnosing CECS in the lateral and both posterior compartments, which may lead to improved treatment of patients with suspected CECS in the lower leg. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level II.

Chronic Exertional Compartment Syndrome of the Leg Management Is Changing: Where Are We and Where Are We Going?

Chronic exertional compartment syndrome (CECS) is one of the wide range of causes of exercise-related leg pain in athletes. It is defined as a transient increase in compartment pressures during activity, which causes pain, because of the inability of the fascial compartments to accommodate and is usually relieved by cessation of exercise. Exercise-induced leg pain in the athletic population is a common complaint, with reports of up to 15% of all runners arriving to initial evaluation with this presentation. Often, this lower-extremity exertional pain is grouped into the common term of "shin splints" by athletes, which is a nondiagnostic term that implies no specific pathology. It may, however, encompass much of the differential for CECS, including medial tibial stress syndrome, muscle strain, and stress fracture. Improving diagnostic techniques, as well as treatments, will continue to help athletes and patients with leg pain in the future.

Chronic Exertional Compartment Syndrome: A Clinical Update.

Chronic exertional compartment syndrome is a debilitating condition primarily associated in highly active individuals with an estimated incidence of approximately 1 in 2000 persons/year. The etiology remains unclear to date. The differential diagnosis includes, but is not limited to stress fractures, medial tibial stress syndrome, and popliteal artery entrapment syndrome. Clinical signs and symptoms include pain in the involved compartment with exertion dissipating quickly after activity. Diagnostic tests include intramuscular compartment pressure testing, magnetic resonance imaging, near-infrared spectrometry as well as shear wave electrography. Treatments consist of nonsurgical, surgical, or the combination of the two. Gait retraining and the use of botulinum toxin appear most promising. Diagnostic lidocaine injections are emerging as a prognostic and mapping tool. Minimal invasive surgical options are being utilized allowing quicker return to activity and decreased morbidity. This article reviews the anatomy, clinical signs and symptoms, diagnostics, nonsurgical, and surgical treatments for chronic exertional compartment syndrome.

Surgical outcomes for chronic exertional compartment syndrome following improved diagnostic criteria.

INTRODUCTION: Chronic exertional compartment syndrome (CECS) presents with pain during exercise, most commonly within the anterior compartment of the lower limb. A diagnosis is classically made from a typical history and the measurement of intramuscular compartmental pressure (IMCP) testing. Improved, more specific diagnostic criteria for IMCP testing allow clinicians to now be more certain of a diagnosis of CECS. Outcomes following surgical treatment in patients diagnosed using these more robust criteria are unknown. METHODS: All patients undergoing fasciectomy for anterior compartment CECS at a single rehabilitation unit were identified between 2014 and 2017. Wilcoxen signed-rank test was used to compare military fitness grading and paired t-test was used to compare Foot and Ankle Ability Measure, FAAM Sport Specific and Exercise-Induced LimbPain-G outcome measures, presurgery and postsurgery. RESULTS: There was a significant difference in fitness grading between presurgical and postsurgical intervention (Z = -2.68, p < 0.01) with 46 % of patients improving their occupational medical grading. All secondary measures of outcome, looking at clinical symptoms, also improved. CONCLUSION: Almost half of the patients undergoing fasciectomy, following diagnosis using more specific criteria, will have an improvement in occupational medical grading. These outcomes represent the lower end of those reported in civilian populations. This is likely a result of a combination of factors, most notably the different diagnostic criteria followed and the more stringent criteria applied to military occupational grading, compared with civilian practice. Further work is now required to evaluate the impact of differing rehabilitation regimes on postoperative patients identified through this more specific diagnostic testing.