Unmasking the Coronary-Subclavian Steal Syndrome: The Culprit Lies in the Subclavian Artery. A Report of a Case and Review of the Literature.

The coronary-subclavian steal syndrome is a hemodynamic phenomenon in which a subclavian artery stenosis or occlusion impairs blood flow at the origin of the left internal mammary artery used for coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG), causing retrograde blood flow and thus provoking symptoms of cardiac ischemia and its complications. Once considered the gold-standard operation of choice, open revascularization has now been abandoned as a first line treatment and replaced by endovascular techniques. In all cases, detailed and oriented physical examination in combination with further imaging in high clinical suspicion for coronary-subclavian steal syndrome remains the sine qua non of the preoperative examination of the patient. We report the case of a 50-year-old male patient suffering from acute onset angina post- coronary artery bypass grafting and managed by endovascular means.

Coronary-subclavian steal syndrome, an easily overlooked entity in interventional cardiology.

Coronary-subclavian steal syndrome (CSSS) is a severe complication of coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) surgery with internal mammary artery grafting. It is caused by functional graft failure due to a hemodynamically significant proximal subclavian artery stenosis. In this manuscript, we provide a comprehensive review of literature and we report a series of five consecutive CSSS cases. This case series illustrates the variable clinical presentation, thereby emphasizing the importance of raised awareness concerning this pathology in CABG patients.

Manifestation of coronary subclavian steal phenomenon using reactive hyperemia in the ipsilateral forearm.

Coronary subclavian steal syndrome (CSSS) is a coronary steal phenomenon secondary to subclavian artery stenosis in patients who have undergone coronary bypass surgery with the internal thoracic artery. Most commonly, CSSS is diagnosed angiographically. Our case emphasizes that stress ultrasound assessment using reactive hyperemia in the ipsilateral arm elicits a functional diagnosis of CSSS.

The incidence and risk factors of coronary steal after ipsilateral AVF in patients with a coronary artery bypass graft.

OBJECTIVE: Ipsilateral arteriovenous fistula (AVF) may cause symptoms of coronary steal in patients who had undergone coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) using internal thoracic artery. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the adverse effects of ipsilateral AVF to CABG, including the incidence of coronary steal, and to analyze the risk factors for coronary steal. METHODS: Between 2000 and 2013, a total of 25 patients undergoing hemodialysis via upper extremity AVF, ipsilateral to the preexisting CABG, were reviewed retrospectively. Clinical assessment related to coronary steal, echocardiography before AVF, and coronary angiography after symptoms were assessed. The definition of coronary steal was the new development of one or more of the following symptoms within 12 weeks after AVF creation: chest pain, chest discomfort, and dyspnea. RESULTS: Three patients were clinically diagnosed as coronary steal. Left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) was statistically lower in coronary steal group compared to no-steal group (41.7% vs. 50.9%; p = 0.036). Patients with coronary steal were older at the age of CABG surgery and showed a higher incidence of regional wall motion abnormality. CONCLUSIONS: Coronary steal after ipsilateral AVF creation in patients with CABG using in situ internal thoracic artery (ITA) developed in 12%, which can be related to low LVEF. In patients with CABG requiring AVF for hemodialysis, the ipsilateral fistula to the grafted ITA should be carefully selected and performed.

Effect of hemodialysis access blood flow on cardiac events after coronary artery bypass grafting using an internal thoracic artery.

BACKGROUND: The possibility of coronary steal through an arteriovenous fistula (AVF) in hemodialysis (HD) patients with coronary artery bypass grafts (CABGs) using an ipsilateral internal thoracic artery (ITA) has been suggested. In order to define the significance of such a possibility, we analyzed cardiac events and mortality risk in patients in relation to AVF flow. METHODS: A retrospective cohort study was performed on prevalent HD patients from a single center. The outcomes included a first cardiac event, cardiac death and death from any cause. RESULTS: The group consisted of 23 chronic HD patients having ITA CABG and upper extremity AV access, 12 patients had an ipsilateral and 11 patients had a contralateral location of ITA CABG and an upper extremity AV access. The mean follow-up period was for 37.0 months.Multivariable Cox proportional-hazards regression analysis of risk of death from any cause in relation to AV access flow showed no increased risk, neither in the group with ipsilateral location of ITA grafts and dialysis accesses (adjusted HR, 3.047 [95% CI, 0.996 to 1.000], p = 0.081), nor in the group with contralateral location of both shunts (adjusted HR, 0.173 [95% CI, 0.997 to 1.002], p = 0.678). There was no significant correlation between AV access blood flow and the risk of first cardiac event as well as cardiac death in either study group. CONCLUSIONS: In this study on HD patients having ipsilateral ITA CABG and AVF, fistula flow rate was not found to be associated with mortality or cardiac risk.

Review of coronary subclavian steal syndrome.

The clinical benefits of using the left internal mammary artery (LIMA) to bypass the left anterior descending artery are well established making it the most frequently used conduit for coronary artery bypass surgery (CABG). Coronary subclavian steal syndrome (CSSS) occurs during left arm exertion when (1) the LIMA is used during bypass surgery and (2) there is a high grade (≥75%) left subclavian artery stenosis or occlusion proximal to the ostia of the LIMA resulting in "stealing" of the myocardial blood supply via retrograde flow up the LIMA graft to maintain left upper extremity perfusion. Although CSSS was once thought to be a rare phenomenon, its prevalence has been underestimated and is becoming increasingly recognized as a serious threat to the success of CABG. Current guidelines are lacking on recommendations for screening of subclavian artery stenosis (SAS) pre- and post-CABG. We hope to provide an algorithm for SAS screening to prevent CSSS in internal mammary artery bypass recipients and review treatment options in the percutaneous era.

Subclavian artery stenting for coronary-subclavian steal syndrome.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the safety and feasibility of subclavian artery stenting for coronary-subclavian steal syndrome (CSSS). BACKGROUND: CSSS is a rare cause of myocardial ischemia due to ipsilateral subclavian artery stenosis in patients who have undergone coronary artery bypass graft. However, current knowledge of the optimal therapy for CSSS is limited. METHODS: The clinical data of 37 patients (33 male; mean age 65 ± 6 years) with CSSS who had undergone subclavian artery stenting between April 2007 and December 2015 were analyzed. RESULTS: The time elapsed between bypass surgery and the diagnosis of CSSS was 6.3 ± 4.3 years (median 5.2 years, range 1.3 months to 17.8 years). The technical success rate was 97.3% (100% for stenosis, 85.7% for occluded lesions). One patient experienced a transient ischemic attack; a second patient developed flow-limiting dissection involving the ostium of the internal mammary artery; and a third patient had a puncture site hematoma. The mean stenosis of target lesions decreased from 87.6 ± 10.6% to 5.9 ± 5.0% immediately after the procedure. A total of 35 (94.6%) patients were discharged with a complete remission of myocardial ischemia. During a follow-up of 44 ± 32 (range 6-112) months, no patient suffered from stroke or myocardial infarction. Stent-restenosis related unstable angina developing in one patient at 36 months and in another patient at 11 months, both of whom were relieved after balloon angioplasty and remained asymptomatic until the last follow-up. CONCLUSION: Subclavian artery stenting is feasible and safe in patients with CSSS, with a low incidence of perioperative complications and stent restenosis rate. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Anatomic and clinical predictors of reintervention after subclavian artery stenting.

OBJECTIVE: This study was conducted to determine long-term predictors of target lesion reintervention (TLR) after subclavian artery stenting (SAS). METHODS: This was a single-center retrospective review of patients with symptomatic atherosclerotic subclavian artery disease who underwent SAS between January 1999 and December 2013. Repeat intervention was only performed in patients with recurrent symptoms and ≥70% in-stent restenosis (ISR). TLR was defined as need for a repeat percutaneous intervention involving a previously stented area. Freedom from events (ISR and TLR) was analyzed using Kaplan-Meier curves. Cox regression analysis was used to determine the significant predictors of TLR and ISR. RESULTS: Index procedures were performed on 139 arteries in 138 patients (69.6% female). Patients were an average age of 64.5 years, with major comorbidities of hypertension (80.4%), hyperlipidemia (72.5%), and tobacco use (60.1%). Also performed during the study period were 24 TLR procedures, resulting 166 SAS interventions attempted for patients with subclavian atherosclerotic disease during a 15-year span. Of 166 procedures, 163 (98.2%) were treated successfully. Stents were placed in all but two index arteries. The main indications for SAS were subclavian steal syndrome (48.9%), arm claudication (21.6%), and coronary steal syndrome (28.8%). The average preprocedure stenosis was 87.2% ± 11.2%. For index procedures (139 arteries), duplex follow-up was available for 134 arteries (96.4%), with an overall ISR rate of 18.7% (25 of 134). Primary patency for the index procedures was 84.7% at 10 years. The overall TLR rate for the index procedures was 12.7% (17 cases). Seven patients required more than one secondary procedure. For all cases, the freedom from ISR was 91%, 77%, and 68% at 1, 5, and 10 years, respectively, and freedom from TLR was 94%, 85%, and 82% at 1, 5, and 10 years, respectively. Multivariate analysis showed the significant predictors of ISR were smoking/chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (hazard ratio [HR], 3.2; P = .001), age by decade (HR, 0.5; P < .001), discharged with statin therapy (HR, 0.3; P = .001), vessel diameter ≤7 mm (HR, 2.3; P = .028), and right-sided intervention (HR, 0.3; P = .040). The sole significant predictor of TLR was age by decade (HR, 0.6; P = .008). CONCLUSIONS: SAS has a high primary success and durability with satisfactory outcomes well beyond 10 years. ISR was more likely to develop in patients who were smokers with chronic obstructive disease or had a baseline vessel size of ≤7 mm. Younger age could be an independent risk factor for secondary intervention.

Subclavian artery stenosis: a case series and review of the literature.

Subclavian artery stenosis (SAS) is a significant form of peripheral artery disease, which may be a marker of diffuse atherosclerosis and increased risk for cardiovascular events. SAS can lead to symptomatic ischemia affecting the upper extremities, the brain, and, in some cases, the heart. In general, asymptomatic subclavian artery disease is treated with medical therapy and invasive treatment is reserved for the more symptomatic patients. This article discusses the evaluation of four patients with varying presentations of subclavian artery disease.

Axillo-axillary bypass with polytetrafluoroethylene graft for coronary subclavian steal syndrome.

The purpose of this study is to report the results of axillo-axillary bypass (AAB) for coronary subclavian steal syndrome due to proximal subclavian artery occlusion. From 2003 to 2010, AAB using a polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) graft was performed in 11 patients with coronary subclavian steal syndrome. There was no perioperative mortality, stroke or cardiac complications. Over a mean follow-up of 36 months (range: 6-81 months), all bypass grafts have remained patent. No patient developed recurrent symptoms of myocardial ischemia. One patient died from hemorrhagic stroke at 31 months. Our results showed that AAB using a PTFE graft provides an effective and durable treatment option for coronary subclavian steal syndrome when attempted endovascular therapy of the occluded proximal subclavian artery is unsuccessful.

Wave intensity analysis of para-aortic counterpulsation.

Wave intensity analysis (WIA) was used to delineate and maximize the efficacy of a newly developed para-aortic blood pump (PABP). The intra-aortic balloon pump (IABP) was employed as the comparison benchmark. Acute porcine experiments using eight pigs, randomly divided into IABP (n = 4) and PABP (n = 4) groups, were conducted to compare the characteristics of intra- and para-aortic counterpulsation. We measured pressure and velocity with probes installed in the left anterior descending coronary artery and aorta, during and without PABP assistance. Wave intensity for aortic and left coronary waves were derived from pressure and flow measurements with synchronization correction applied. To achieve maximized support efficacy, deflation timings ranging from 25 ms ahead of to 35 ms after the R-wave were tested. Similar to those associated with IABP counterpulsation, the PABP-generated backward-traveling waves predominantly drove aortic and coronary blood flows. However, in contrast with IABP counterpulsation, the nonocclusive nature of the PABP allowed systolic unloading to be delayed into early systole, which resulted in near elimination of coronary blood steal without diminution of systolic left ventricular ejection wave intensities. WIA can elucidate subtleties among different counterpulsatile support means with high sensitivity. Total accelerating wave intensity (TAWI), which was defined as the sum of the time integration of accelerated parts of the positive and negative wave intensities, was used to quantify counterpulsation efficacy. In general, the larger the TAWI gain, the better the counter-pulsatile support efficacy. However, when PABP deflation timings were delayed to after the R-wave, the TAWI was found to be inversely correlated with coronary perfusion. In this delayed deflation timing setting, greater wave cancellation occurred, which led to decreased TAWI but increased coronary perfusion attributed to blood regurgitation reduction.

Endovascular treatment of coronary steal.

Postoperative angina is generally caused by subclavian artery stenosis or flow diversion in anomalous or large unligated side branches of the left internal mammary artery. Previously, surgery was the treatment method for unligated side branches, but with the improvements of interventional techniques, it is shown that endovascular treatment is also effective in these patients. Herein, we present successful endovascular treatment of a large unligated intercostal side branch causing recurrent angina.

Relief of angina pectoris when carrying heavy loads with the left hand in a patient with previous coronary artery bypass graft operation who has severe exercise angina: a case report.

In patients with known coronary artery disease and/or a history of revascularization, angina pectoris or unstable coronary syndromes are usually attributed to the progression of atherosclerotic lesions rather than an unrecognized great vessel disease. However, for patients with a previous coronary artery bypass graft operation (CABG), during which a left internal mammary artery (LIMA) conduit has been used, great vessel disease, especially subclavian artery stenosis should also be suspected. We present a case of a patient with a LIMA conduit who has angina pectoris on exertion, but interestingly the pain is relieved when he carries heavy loads with his left hand, which can be due to increased blood flow to the LIMA conduit during heavy lifting because of increased peripheral resistance.