Comparative biomechanical analysis of gait in patients with central cord and Brown-Séquard syndrome.

PURPOSE: This is a pilot study with the aim to highlight the use of kinematic and kinetic analyses as an adjunct to the assessment of individual patients with central cord syndrome (CCS) and hemisection or Brown-Séquard syndrome (BSS) and to discuss their possible consequences for clinical management. METHODS: The sample studied consisted of 17 patients with CCS, 13 with BSS and 20 control subjects (control group (CG)). Data were obtained using a three-dimensional motion analysis system and two force plates. Gait differences were compared between CCS, BSS walking at a self-selected speed and CG at both a self-selected and a similar speed to that of the patient groups. RESULTS: The most relevant findings involved the knee and ankle, especially in the sagittal plane. In patients with CCS, knee flexion at initial contact was increased with respect to those in the BSS group (p < 0.01). The ankle in the BSS group made initial contact with a small degree of plantar flexion. CONCLUSION: The use of gait biomechanical analysis to detect underlying impairments can help the physician to set a specific rehabilitation program in each CCS and BSS walking patient. In this group of patients, rehabilitation treatment should aim to improve gait control and optimise ankle positioning at initial contact. Implications for Rehabilitation In this study, gait differences between patients with CSS and BSS were evaluated with biomechanical equipment. The most remarkable differences were found in the knee and ankle sagittal plane due to ankle position at initial contact. In this group of patients, rehabilitation treatment should aim to improve gait control and to get a better ankle positioning at initial contact.

Traumatic central cord syndrome: neurologic recovery after surgical management.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate neurologic recovery following an acute, traumatic central cord syndrome (TCCS) injury. We retrospectively reviewed 69 patients who were treated surgically following an acute TCCS injury. The American Spinal Injury Association (ASIA) motor scores (AMS) were obtained from the time of presentation, from the time of hospital discharge, and from the most recent follow-up visit. The mean AMS was 63.2 ± 25.8 at presentation and 89.9 ± 14.6 at final follow-up (P<.001). Overall, 74% of the patients improved at least one ASIA impairment scale grade. Surgery was performed at a mean of 2.9 days (range, 0.25-24 days) following the injury using a posterior approach in 33 patients (48%), anterior approach in 22 patients (32%), and combined anterior-posterior approach in 14 patients (20%). Neither surgical timing nor approach appears to affect motor recovery. Adverse events were encountered in 24.6% of the patients. There were no deaths. A history of a loss of consciousness, decreased rectal tone at presentation, the presence of a fracture, the timing of surgery, and surgical approach did not have a significant impact on motor recovery.

Aplicación del análisis tridimensional de la marcha en pacientes con síndrome centromedular / Application of gait 3d analysis in patients with central cord syndrome

Introducción. El síndrome centromedular es el más común de las lesiones medulares incompletas y el 87-97% de estos pacientes consiguen una marcha independiente, pero no se han encontrado estudios publicados sobre el análisis de la marcha. El objetivo de este estudio fue analizar las características de la marcha de sujetos con síndrome centromedular y comparar los resultados con un grupo control formado por individuos sanos de características antropométricas similares. Métodos. Se analizó a 12 pacientes con síndrome centromedular y a un grupo control formado por 20 sujetos. Los datos cinemáticos se obtuvieron con un sistema de análisis tridimensional del movimiento. El grupo control caminó a velocidad libre y a velocidad similar a la registrada en los pacientes. Las variables espaciotemporales y cinemáticas se compararon entre los dos grupos. Resultados. La abducción de cadera y la flexión de rodilla en el contacto inicial, así como el mínimo de flexión de rodilla durante la fase de apoyo, fueron mayores en el grupo de pacientes (p<0,05). Sin embargo, los rangos de movimiento de la rodilla y el tobillo en el plano sagital fueron mayores en el grupo control (p<0,05). Conclusiones. El patrón de la marcha de los pacientes mostró una disminución del rango de movimiento en el plano sagital de la rodilla y el tobillo y un incremento de la abducción de la cadera para incrementar la base de sustentación. Estos resultados pueden facilitar la planificación objetiva de los tratamientos encargados de mejorar la marcha en estos pacientes(AU)

Background. Central cord syndrome is the most common incomplete spinal cord injury syndrome and 87-97% of these patients achieve independent walking but no gait analysis studies have been reported. The aim of this study was to analyze the characteristics of the gait in subjects with central cord syndrome and to compare the results with a healthy anthropomorphically matched control group. Methods. Twelve patients and a control group with twenty subjects were analyzed. Kinematic data were obtained using a three-dimensional motion analysis system. The control group walked at a self-selected speed and at a speed similar to the speed previously registered in the patient group. Temporal, spatial variables and kinematic variables were compared between the two groups. Results. Hip abduction and knee flexion at initial contact as well as minimal knee flexion during stance were larger in the patient group (P<.05). However, knee and ankle ranges of motion in the sagittal plane were greater in the control group (P<.05). Conclusions. Knee and ankle range of motion in sagittal plane were reduced and hip abduction was increased to improve stability in patients with central cord syndrome. The results can support objective ways to establish the treatment to recover gait in patients with central cord syndrome(AU)

Supernumerary phantom limbs in spinal cord injury.

STUDY DESIGN AND OBJECTIVES: Case report and review of supernumerary phantom limbs in patients suffering from spinal cord injury (SCI). SETTING: SCI rehabilitation centre. CASE REPORT: After a ski accident, a 71-year-old man suffered an incomplete SCI (level C3; AIS C, central cord syndrome), with a C3/C4 dislocation fracture. From the first week after injury, he experienced a phantom duplication of both upper limbs that lasted for 7 months. The supernumerary limbs were only occasionally related to painful sensation, specifically when they were perceived as crossed on his trunk. Although the painful sensations were responsive to pain medication, the presence of the illusory limb sensations were persistent. During neurological recovery, the supernumerary limbs gradually disappeared. A rubber hand illusion paradigm was used twice during recovery to monitor the patient's ability to integrate visual, tactile and proprioceptive stimuli. CONCLUSION: Overall, the clinical relevance of supernumerary phantom limbs is not clear, specific treatment protocols have not yet been developed, and the underlying neural mechanisms are not fully understood. Supernumerary phantom limbs have been previously reported in patients with (sub)cortical lesions, but might be rather undocumented in patients suffering from traumatic SCI. For the appropriate diagnosis and treatment after SCI, supernumerary phantoms should be distinguished from other phantom sensations and pain syndromes after SCI.

Diagnostic criteria of traumatic central cord syndrome. Part 3: descriptive analyses of neurological and functional outcomes in a prospective cohort of traumatic motor incomplete tetraplegics.

STUDY DESIGN: Prospective multicenter cohort study. OBJECTIVES: To compare the neurological recovery and functional outcomes between traumatic central cord syndrome (TCCS) patients and motor incomplete tetraplegic patients. SETTING: European Multicenter Study of human spinal cord injury. METHODS: In 248 traumatic motor incomplete tetraplegics, initial phase (0-15 days) American Spinal Injury Association (ASIA) impairment grading, upper and lower extremity motor scores (UEMS and LEMS), upper and lower sensory scores and chronic phase (6 or 12 months) neurological outcomes were analyzed. In addition, chronic phase self-care and indoor mobility Spinal Cord Independence Measure (SCIM) items were studied. Tetraplegics were subdivided into three groups: (1) non-TCCS group (UEMSLEMS), (2) intermediate-TCCS group (UEMS=(1-9 points)

A novel classification system for traumatic central cord syndrome: the central cord injury scale (CCIS).

STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective study of 37 patients with traumatic central cord syndrome. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study is to review a series of patients with central cord syndrome and to introduce a classification system that is predictive of functional outcome. SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA: Central cord syndrome is the most common incomplete spinal cord injury, yet a predictive classification system does not exist. METHODS: Thirty-seven patients with traumatic central cord syndrome had 1-year results of the motor portion of the Functional Independence Measurement (FIM) Score. Ten factors were analyzed for their predictive effect on the 1-year Motor FIM Score. RESULTS: There were 8 women and 29 men with a mean age of 55.1 years. The mean injury motor FIM was 21.9 and mean 1-year Motor FIM: 70.2 (P < 0.001). The following had a predictive effect on 1-year Motor FIM: Injury ASIA Motor Score (P < 0.013) and magnetic resonance imaging evidence of abnormal signal intensity (P < 0.007). Points were assigned to these factors, and patients were categorized as Central Cord Injury Scale (CCIS) 1, 2, or 3. CCIS 1: n = 6, mean 1-year Motor FIM = 40.8; CCIS 2: n = 19 and FIM = 72.4; and CCIS 3: n = 12 and FIM = 81.5. Each classification had an increasing percentage of patients who could walk without ever using a wheelchair and had independence in bladder and bowel function. CONCLUSION: The CCIS is predictive of a patient's functional outcome at 1 year and has the potential to help patients and physicians establish realistic expectations for functional recovery based on ASIA Motor Score and magnetic resonance imaging findings.

Outcome after incomplete spinal cord injury: central cord versus Brown-Sequard syndrome.

STUDY DESIGN: A retrospective analysis of prospectively collected data. OBJECTIVE: A hemisection of the spinal cord is a frequently used animal model for spinal cord injury (SCI), the corresponding human condition, that is, the Brown-Sequard syndrome (BS), is relatively rare as compared with the central cord syndrome (CC). The time course of neurological deficit, functional recovery, impulse conductivity and rehabilitation length of stay in BS and CC subjects were compared. SETTING: Nine European Spinal Cord Injury Rehabilitation Centers. METHODS: Motor score, walking function, daily life activities, somatosensory evoked potentials and length of stay were evaluated 1 and 6 months after SCI, and were compared between age-matched groups of tetraparetic BS and CC subjects. RESULTS: For all analyzed measures no difference in the time course of improvement was found in 15 matched pairs. CONCLUSION: In contrast to the assumption of a better outcome of subjects with BS, no difference was found between the two incomplete SCI groups. This is of interest with respect to the different potential mechanisms leading to a recovery of functions in these two SCI subgroups.

Central cord syndrome in Ireland: the effect of age on clinical outcome.

Central cord syndrome is an incomplete spinal cord injury first described by Schneider et al. (J Neurosurg 11:546-547, 1954). The typical neurological deficit is symmetrical incomplete quadriplegia affecting the upper more than the lower limbs; sensory impairment is variable and urinary retention is common. Records of all patients with acute traumatic central cord syndrome admitted to the National Spinal Injuries Unit from 1999 to 2007 were compiled from a prospectively collected computerized spinal database. Data recorded included patient demographic profile, mechanism of injury, initial neurological deficit, treatment instituted, complications of treatment, and final neurological status. A total of 50 patients with acute traumatic central cord syndrome were identified accounting for 6.2% of all admissions to the spinal injuries unit. There were 42 men and 8 women. The mean age was 56.1 years with a range of 41-88 years. We stratified patients according to age at injury to determine the effect of age on clinical outcome. There were 13 patients <50 years of age, 24 aged 50-70, and 13 aged >70 years. The mean follow-up time was 42.2 months. More than one-third of patients were intoxicated with alcohol at the time of the injury. Both upper and lower limb motor scores and total sensory scores improved in all age groups. Absolute and relative improvements were greatest in patients <50 years of age. Sphincter disturbance was documented in 42% of all the patients on admission. At follow up 12% of patients had residual disturbance. At final follow up none of the patients under 70 years of age had residual sphincter disturbance while 60% of those aged >70 years group had. Both of these results reached statistical significance. In conclusion, central cord syndrome is a common cause of acute traumatic neurological deficit, with alcohol intoxication being a common confounder at the time of injury. The clinical outcomes are significantly worse in patients aged 70 years or older.

Comparative biomechanical gait analysis of patients with central cord syndrome walking with one crutch and two crutches.

BACKGROUND: Ambulatory people with central cord syndrome often require assistive devices. The selection of a suitable assistive device should be based on an objective assessment. Our objective in this study was to determine whether there was any difference in using two crutches over one crutch, considering that these patients have bilateral upper-limb involvement. METHODS: Kinematic gait analysis was conducted in 12 patients with central cord syndrome of more than one year of evolution and functional capacity for walking with one crutch or without crutches. Patients were asked to walk with one crutch and with two crutches at a freely chosen walking speed through a 10-m walkway. Three-dimensional kinematic equipment based on active markers was used to analyze temporospatial and articular parameters (maximum, minimum, and range of motion, ROM, throughout the cycle) FINDINGS: During two-crutch versus one-crutch walking, speed was lower (P=0041), stride time and step time were longer (P=0.004 and P=0.005) and there were fewer strides/minute and steps/minute (P=0.005 and P=0.006). The duration of the single support stance was longer during two-crutch walking (P=0.008). With respect to the articular parameters, both ankle ROMs (dorsi-plantar flexion P=0.003 and pronation-supination P=0.004) were greater with one-crutch walking than with two-crutch walking. INTERPRETATION: In patients with central cord syndrome capable of walking with one crutch or without crutches, walking with two crutches decreases speed, increases stride time and step time and improves stability by increasing single support, and diminishes ankle plantar flexion during swing phase.

Incidence and outcomes of spinal cord injury clinical syndromes.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVE: To examine and compare demographics and functional outcomes for individuals with spinal cord injury (SCI) clinical syndromes, including central cord (CCS), Brown-Sequard (BSS), anterior cord (ACS), posterior cord (PCS), cauda equina (CES), and conus medullaris (CMS). DESIGN: Retrospective review. SETTING: Tertiary care, level 1 trauma center inpatient rehabilitation unit. PARTICIPANTS: Eight hundred thirty-nine consecutive admissions with acute SCIs. MAIN OUTCOMES MEASURES: Functional independence measure (FIM), FIM subgroups (motor, self-care, sphincter control), length of stay (LOS), and discharge disposition. RESULTS: One hundred seventy-five patients (20.9%) were diagnosed with SCI clinical syndromes. CCS was the most common (44.0%), followed by CES (25.1%) and BSS (17.1%). Significant differences (P < or = 0.01) were found between groups with regard to age, race, etiology, total admission FIM, motor admission FIM, self-care admission and discharge FIM, and LOS. Statistical analysis between tetraplegic BSS and CCS revealed significant differences (P < or = 0.01) with respect to age (39.7 vs 53.2 years) and a trend toward significance (P < or = 0.05) with regard to self-care admission and discharge FIM. No significant differences (P < or = 0.01) were found when comparing CMS to CES. CONCLUSIONS: SCI clinical syndromes represent a significant proportion of admissions to acute SCI rehabilitation, with CCS presenting most commonly and representing the oldest age group with the lowest admission functional level of all SCI clinical syndromes. Patients with cervical BSS seem to achieve higher functional improvement by discharge compared with patients with CCS. Patients with CMS and CES exhibit similar functional outcomes. Patients with ACS and PCS show functional gains with inpatient rehabilitation, with patients with ACS displaying the longest LOS of the SCI clinical syndromes. These findings have important implications for the overall management and outcome of patients with SCI.

Acute central cord syndrome with bodybuilder sign.

We describe a 81-year-old man who after falling face forward and hyperextending his neck suffer an acute cervical spinal cord injury consistent with acute traumatic central cord syndrome (ATCCS) who developed a peculiar posture with arm abduction at the shoulders and flexion at the elbows and wrists resembling the pose of a bodybuilder.

Neurological and functional outcome in traumatic central cord syndrome.

STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective analysis of in-patient stay and prospective follow-up. OBJECTIVES: To study neurological and functional outcomes after traumatic central cord syndrome (TCCS). SETTING: Regional Spinal Unit of Florence, Italy. METHODS: In total, 82 patients, admitted for acute rehabilitation to our Centre (1996-2002) with a diagnosis of TCCS entered the study. Data on admission and discharge were collected for assessments performed at 18 months of injury or later. Data included: cause of injury, gender, type of vertebral lesion, treatment, time of hospitalisation (LoS), ASIA/ISCOS Impairment Scale, neurological examination, functional independence measure (FIM) on admission and discharge. Additional measures included the walking index for spinal cord injuries (WISCI), bladder management, FIM, spasticity on discharge/follow-up and neuropathic pain at follow-up. Correlations were performed on outcome measures in relation to age, treatment, LoS, spasticity and neuropathic pain. RESULTS: Average age was 52 (16-82) years. Causes included falls (47%), road traffic accidents (36%) and sport (7%). Of patients, 45% were treated surgically and 55% conservatively. LoS was 120 days (24-390), but less for those treated without surgery. Patients under 65 years had better outcomes with less neuropathic pain. Neurological and functional recovery was observed on discharge from rehabilitation, which continued in the period following discharge. Spasticity was equally present in all age groups. No difference in outcome was found as a result of spine surgery. CONCLUSIONS: Patients with TCCS are older than other spinal cord injured patients, but often show improvement after discharge. Improvement in subjects under 65 years was significantly better than for those over 65 years.

The long-term outcome after central cord syndrome: a study of the natural history.

We studied 32 patients with central cord syndrome who were managed conservatively. Six were under 50 years of age (group 1), 16 between 50 and 70 years (group 2) and ten over 70 years (group 3). At the time of discharge all patients in group 1 could walk independently and had good bladder control compared with 11 (69%) and 14 (88%) in group 2 and four (40%) and two (20%) in group 3, respectively. At follow-up after a mean of 8.6 years (4 to 15), ten patients had died leaving 22 in the study. All those in group 1 were alive, could walk independently and had bladder control. In group 2, 13 were alive of whom ten (77%) could walk independently and nine (69%) had bladder control. In group 3 only three were alive of whom only one was independent and none had bladder control. Function at discharge as measured by the ASIA motor scoring system was usually maintained or improved at follow-up, but patients over 70 years of age at injury did poorly.