Inclusion of chia seeds (Salvia hispanica L.) and pumpkin seeds (Cucurbita moschata) in dairy sheep diets.

Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) seed (CS) and Pumpkin (Cucurbita moschata) seed (PS) are used in ruminant diets as energy sources. The current experiment studied the impact of dietary inclusion of CS and PS on nutrient intake and digestibility, milk yield, and milk composition of dairy sheep. Twelve primiparous Texel × Suffolk ewes [70 ± 5 days in milk (DIM); 0.320 ± 0.029 kg milk yield] were distributed in a 4 × 3 Latin square design and fed either a butter-based control diet [CON; 13 g/kg dry matter] or two diets with 61 g/kg DM of either CS or PS. Dietary inclusion of CS and PS did not alter live weight (p >0.1) and DM intake (p >0.1). However, compared to the CON, dietary inclusion of both CS and PS increased the digestibility of neutral detergent fiber (p <0.001) and acid detergent lignin (p < 0.001). Milk production (p = 0.001), fat-corrected milk (p < 0.001), and feed efficiency (p < 0.001) were enhanced with PS, while the highest milk protein yield (p < 0.05) and lactose yield (p < 0.001) were for CS-fed ewes. Compared to the CON diet, the ingestion of either CS and/or PS decreased (p < 0.001) the C16:0 in milk. Moreover, both CS and PS tended to enhance the content of C18:3n6 (p > 0.05) and C18:3n3 (p > 0.05). Overall short-term feeding of CS and/or PS (up to 6.1% DM of diet) not only maintains the production performance and digestibility of nutrients but also positively modifies the milk FA composition.

A review of the functional activities of chia seed and the mechanisms of action related to molecular targets.

In recent years, as a functional potential pseudocereal, chia seed (Salvia hispanica L.) has been of great interest for its comprehensive nutritional profile and attractive qualities after ingestion. It is reported that a reasonable dietary supplementation of chia seed (CS) contributes to the prevention and treatment of acute and chronic diseases (inflammation, diabetes, hypertension, obesity, kidney stone, etc.). CS contains a variety of bioactive macromolecular substances, such as oil, protein and gum, which manifest distinguished health-promoting activities in both in vivo and in vitro research studies. This article provides a comprehensive compendium on the functional importance of CS, in the context of biological activities and mechanism of actions of CS. Specifically, CS and its components alleviate inflammation and regulate glucose and fatty acid metabolism by regulating key influencing factors in the adenosine 5'-monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK), mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK), nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), peroxisome-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-γ) and transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-ß) pathways and the insulin receptor substrate (IRS)-mediated insulin signaling pathway. In the meantime, predictions of metabolic pathways of CS peptides based on the known tracks of newly researched active peptides were proposed, with the aim of emphasizing the enormous research space of CS peptides compared to other functional active peptides.

The Techno-Functionality of Chia Seed and Its Fractions as Ingredients for Meat Analogs.

Eating practices are changing due to awareness about meat consumption associated with social, ethical, environmental, and nutritional issues. Plant-based meat analogs are alternatives to conventional meat products that attempt to mimic all the inherent characteristics of meat fully. Therefore, the search for raw materials that provide these characteristics is increasing. Chia seeds have excellent potential as a functional ingredient in these products since they are a source of proteins, lipids, and fibers. Allied with this, the full use of chia through the seed and its fractions highlights the numerous beneficial characteristics of the formulation regarding nutritional characteristics and techno-functionality. Therefore, this review aims to highlight the potential of chia seed and its fractions for applications in meat-like products. Chia seeds are protein sources. Chia oil is rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids, and its application in emulsions ensures the oil's nutritional quality and maintains its technological characteristics. Defatted chia flour has a high protein content and can be used to extract chia mucilage. Due to its high emulsification capacity, chia mucilage is an effective ingredient for meat products and, consequently, meat-like products. Therefore, this literature review demonstrates the strategic potential of using chia seeds and their fractions to develop meat analogs.

Enrichment of a fruit-based smoothie beverage with omega-3 fatty acids from microencapsulated chia seed oil.

BACKGROUND: Omega-3 fatty acids are known for their various health benefits. Chia is the richest vegetable source of omega-3 fatty acids. However, its oil is highly susceptible to oxidative deterioration and should be protected for incorporation into food matrices. This work aimed to study the incorporation of different chia oil microcapsules in a powdered beverage, analyzing the effect on the physicochemical characteristics and stability during storage. RESULTS: Different types of microcapsules were obtained: monolayer microcapsules using sodium caseinate and lactose as wall material, and multilayer microcapsules produced through electrostatic deposition using lecithins, chitosan, and chia mucilage as the first, second, and third layers, respectively. The results demonstrated an efficient enrichment of smoothies, with omega-3 fatty acid values ranging from 24.09% to 42.73%, while the original food matrix powder lacked this component. These powder beverages exhibited low moisture content (≤ 2.91%) and low water activity (≤ 0.39). The aerated, packed density and compressibility assays indicated that adding microcapsules made the powders less dense and compressible. The color of the original powdered beverage was not modified. The dispersibility reflected an acceptable instantaneity, reaching the maximum obscuration after 30 s of stirring. The solubility of all the enriched products was higher than 70%, whereas the pH was ~6.8. The contact angle between the powder and liquid indicated an excellent ability to be reconstituted in water. The analysis of the glass transition temperature showed that the storage temperature (25 °C) was adequate. The peroxide value of all the products was low throughout the storage (≤ 1.63 meq peroxide kg-1 of oil at 90 days at 25 ± 2 °C), thus maintaining the quality of the microencapsulated chia oil. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that incorporating the monolayer and multilayer chia oil microcapsules that were studied could be a viable strategy for enriching smoothies with the omega-3 fatty acids present in chia seed oil. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Chia (Salvia hispanica L.), a Pre-Hispanic Food in the Treatment of Diabetes Mellitus: Hypoglycemic, Antioxidant, Anti-Inflammatory, and Inhibitory Properties of α-Glucosidase and α-Amylase, and in the Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease.

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is considered one of the major health diseases worldwide, one that requires immediate alternatives to allow treatments for DM to be more effective and less costly for patients and also for health-care systems. Recent approaches propose treatments for DM based on that; in addition to focusing on reducing hyperglycemia, they also consider multitargets, as in the case of plants. Among these, we find the plant known as chia to be highlighted, a crop native to Mexico and one cultivated in Mesoamerica from pre-Hispanic times. The present work contributes to the review of the antidiabetic effects of chia for the treatment of DM. The antidiabetic effects of chia are effective in different mechanisms involved in the complex pathogenesis of DM, including hypoglycemic, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory mechanisms, and the inhibition of the enzymes α-glucosidase and α-amylase, as well as in the prevention of the risk of cardiovascular disease. The tests reviewed included 16 in vivo assays on rodent models, 13 clinical trials, and 4 in vitro tests. Furthermore, chia represents advantages over other natural products due to its availability and its acceptance and, in addition, as a component of the daily diet worldwide, especially due to its omega-3 fatty acids and its high concentration of dietary fiber. Thus, chia in the present work represents a source of antidiabetic agents that would perhaps be useful in novel clinical treatments.

Chemical Composition, Fatty Acid Profile, Phenolic Compounds, and Antioxidant Activity of Raw and Germinated Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) Seeds.

The consumption of chia seeds has become popular due to their beneficial health properties and the germination of chia seeds seems to further enhance these properties. This study aimed to evaluate the changes in the nutritional composition of chia seeds after germination for 3 and 6 days. Chemical composition, fatty acid profile, phenolic content and antioxidant capacity were determined. The indices of lipid quality, atherogenicity, thrombogenicity, and the n-6/n-3 ratio were calculated. Chia sprouts presented a significant increase in minerals, proteins, and a reduction in total lipid content with maintenance of lipid quality. Total phenolic content decreased significantly as germination time increased, but there was a significant increase in the amount of rosmarinic acid. Chia sprouts showed a significant increase in antioxidant potential when compared to raw chia seeds. As a conclusion, the results of this study demonstrated that chia seed germination is a simple, economical, and short-term process capable of improving the nutritional composition of the seeds.

Ethnopharmacology, Nutritional Value, Therapeutic Effects, Phytochemistry, and Toxicology of Salvia hispanica L.: A Review.

AIMS: The purpose of this review was to emphasize the nutritional value, and pharmacological and phytochemical properties of Salvia hispanica, as well as its toxicological evaluation. BACKGROUND: Salvia hispanica L. (S. hispanica), also called chia seeds, is an annual herbaceous plant belonging to the family Lamiaceae. It is a species of medicinal and dietary plant used since ancient times by the Maya and Aztecs. Its product is an indehiscent dry fruit that is commonly called a seed. It is utilized for its health benefits and uses in cooking. OBJECTIVE: The study aimed to investigate the pharmacological, phytochemical, and toxicological properties of S. hispanica seeds. The research also attempted to explore and compile all existing knowledge and data on these seeds' nutritional value and medical applications. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The current review was conducted using numerous scientific databases, including Science Direct, Scopus, PubMed, Google Scholar, etc. The correct plant name was verified from plantlist.org. The results of this search were interpreted, analyzed, and documented based on the obtained bibliographic information. RESULTS: S. hispanica is a pseudo cereal that is consumed by the world's population because of its preventive, functional, and antioxidant characteristics, attributable to the presence of lipids, dietary fiber, protein, phenolic compounds, vitamins, and minerals. According to research, chia offers hypoglycemic, antimicrobial, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antihypersensitive, anti-obesity, and cardioprotective properties. Chia consumption has grown because of its favorable benefits on obesity, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and several forms of cancer. These advantages are mostly due to the high concentration of essential fatty acids, dietary fiber, antioxidants, flavonoids, anthocyanins, vitamins, carotenoids, and minerals found in this seed. Based on the beneficial components, chia seeds have enormous potential in the areas of health, food, animal feed, medicines, and nutraceuticals. Finally, toxicological investigations have indicated the greater doses of chia seed extracts as safe. CONCLUSION: The current evaluation has focused on the distribution, chemical composition, nutritional value, and principal uses of S. hispanica in order to determine future research requirements and examine its pharmacological applications through clinical studies.

Vasorelaxant Activity of Salvia hispanica L.: Involvement of the Nitric Oxide Pathway in Its Pharmacological Mechanism.

Salvia hispanica L., commonly known as chía, and its seeds have been used since ancient times to prepare different beverages. Due to its nutritional content, it is considered a dietary ingredient and has been reported with many health benefits. Chia seed components are helpful in cardiovascular disease (CVD) by reducing blood pressure, platelet aggregation, cholesterol, and oxidation. Still, its vasodilator effects on the vascular system were not reported yet. The hexanic (HESh), dichloromethanic (DESh), and methanolic (MESh) extracts obtained from chía seeds were evaluated on an aortic ring ex-vivo experimental model. The vasorelaxant efficacy and mechanism of action were determined. Also, phytochemical data was obtained through 13C NMR-based dereplication. The MESh extract showed the highest efficacy (Emax = 87%), and its effect was partially endothelium-dependent. The mechanism of action was determined experimentally, and the vasorelaxant curves were modified in the presence of L-NAME, ODQ, and potassium channel blockers. MESh caused a relaxing effect on KCl 80 mM-induced contraction and was less potent than nifedipine. The CaCl2-induced contraction was significantly decreased compared with the control curve. Phytochemical analysis of MESh suggests the presence of mannitol, previously reported as a vasodilator on aortic rings. Our findings suggest NO-cGMP pathway participation as a vasodilator mechanism of action of S. hispanica seeds; this effect can be attributed, in part, to the mannitol presence. S. hispanica could be used in future research focused on antihypertensive therapies.

Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) flour modulates the intestinal microbiota in Wistar rats fed a high-fat and high-fructose diet.

A diet rich in sugar and fat can promote metabolic disorders development, especially in the intestine. Chia flour (Salvia hispanica. L) is a source of dietary fiber, alpha-linolenic fatty acid (ALA), bioactive peptides, and phenolics, promoting health benefits. This study aimed to analyze chia flour's effect on gut microbiota modulation and intestinal health in adult male Wistar rats fed a high-fat and high-fructose (HFHF) diet. Male Wistar rats (n = 10/group) were fed the diets standard (AIN-93M) or HFHF (31% saturated fat and 20% fructose) in the first phase to induce metabolic disorders. In the second phase, the rats were fed AIN-93M, HFHF, or HFHF plus 14.7% chia flour (HFHF + CF) for 10 weeks. The consumption of chia flour increased the ALA (3.24 ± 0.24) intake and significantly improved immunoglobulin A (IgA) levels (1126.00 ± 145.90), goblet cells number (24.57 ± 2.76), crypt thickness (34.37 ± 5.86), crypt depth (215.30 ± 23.19), the longitudinal muscle layer (48.11 ± 5.04), cecum weight (4.39 ± 0.71), Shannon index (p < 0.05), and significantly increased the production of acetic (20.56 ± 4.10) and butyric acids (5.96 ± 1.50), Monoglobus sp., Lachnospiraceae sp., and Prevotellaceae sp. abundance. Furthermore, chia significantly reduced the cecal pH content (7.54 ± 1.17), body mass index (0.62 ± 0.03) and weight (411.00 ± 28.58), and Simpson index (p < 0.05). Therefore, chia intake improved intestinal health parameters and functionality in rats with metabolic disorders, which demonstrates to be an effective strategy for gut microbiota modulation.

Antibacterial properties of peptides from chia (Salvia hispanica L.) applied to pork meat preservation.

Chia-derived peptides might represent a novel alternative to conventional preservatives in food. Despite the antibacterial potential of these molecules, their food application is still limited. This study aimed to evaluate chia-derived peptides' antibacterial and antibiofilm potential in food preservation. The peptides YACLKVK, KLKKNL, KLLKKYL, and KKLLKI were synthesized, and their antibacterial activity against Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, and Salmonella Enteritidis was evaluated through microdilution tests. A bacterial killing kinetic assay determined bacterial growth over time. The ability to prevent and eradicate S. aureus biofilm was assessed by crystal violet staining. The hemolytic and cytotoxic activities were determined in human red blood cells and fibroblasts using free hemoglobin detection and (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide) assays, respectively. Finally, a microbial challenge was performed on meat samples inoculated with L. monocytogenes and S. Enteritidis to determine their inhibitory effects on pork meat. Results showed the potential antibacterial activity of these peptides, with minimum inhibitory concentrations ranging from 0.23 to 5.58 mg/mL. Biofilm inhibition percentages were above 40%, and eradication percentages were lower than 20%. In vitro assays in human red blood cells and fibroblasts demonstrated that peptides are not hemolytic or cytotoxic agents. In microbiological challenge testing, KKLLKI showed the most promising antibacterial effects against S. Enteritidis on refrigerated pork meat samples. These findings suggest that chia-derived peptides have the potential as natural food preservatives due to their antibacterial and antibiofilm properties. Notably, KKLLKI demonstrated promising antibacterial effects against Salmonella spp. on a complex food matrix, such as pork meat. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Chia-derived peptides can be a safer alternative to synthetic preservatives in the food industry because the latter may be detrimental to human health. Salmonella spp. growth on chilled pork meat was shown to be inhibited by the peptide KKLLKI, indicating that the use of these peptides may offer a more secure and natural alternative to synthetic preservatives.

Multi-omic analyses reveal the unique properties of chia (Salvia hispanica) seed metabolism.

Chia (Salvia hispanica) is an emerging crop considered a functional food containing important substances with multiple potential applications. However, the molecular basis of some relevant chia traits, such as seed mucilage and polyphenol content, remains to be discovered. This study generates an improved chromosome-level reference of the chia genome, resolving some highly repetitive regions, describing methylation patterns, and refining genome annotation. Transcriptomic analysis shows that seeds exhibit a unique expression pattern compared to other organs and tissues. Thus, a metabolic and proteomic approach is implemented to study seed composition and seed-produced mucilage. The chia genome exhibits a significant expansion in mucilage synthesis genes (compared to Arabidopsis), and gene network analysis reveals potential regulators controlling seed mucilage production. Rosmarinic acid, a compound with enormous therapeutic potential, was classified as the most abundant polyphenol in seeds, and candidate genes for its complex pathway are described. Overall, this study provides important insights into the molecular basis for the unique characteristics of chia seeds.

Transcriptomic Responses of Salvia hispanica to the Infestation of Red Spider Mites (Tetranychus neocaledonicus).

Salvia hispanica (chia) is a highly nutritious food source and has gained popularity due to its high omega-3 fatty acid content. Red spider mites are a serious problem in the production of S. hispanica. However, no study has been conducted to analyze the defensive response to the infestation of red spider mites in S. hispanica. To elucidate the molecular mechanisms of the defensive response of S. hispanica to red spider mites, we performed a transcriptomic analysis of S. hispanica when infested by red spider mites. In the comparative assessment of leaf transcriptomes, a total of 1743 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified between control and mite-infested S. hispanica. From these, 1208 (69%) transcripts were upregulated and 535 (31%) were downregulated. The DEGs included transcription factors, defense hormones, and secondary metabolites that were either suppressed or activated in response to spider mite herbivory. Gene Ontology (GO) enrichment analysis revealed that plant secondary metabolites, such as glucosinolates, and signaling pathways, including the jasmonic acid signaling pathway, may play an important role in the defense against red spider mites. This study provides novel insights into the defense response of S. hispanica to insect herbivory and could be a resource for the improvement of pest resistance in the chia.

Protective effect of Salvia hispanica (chia seeds) against obesity induced ovarian disorders in rat model.

The main goal of the current report is to assess the protective impacts of chia seeds against obesity-induced ovarian dysfunctions with a trial to elucidate the mechanism of action. Forty rats were divided into 4 groups including lean untreated, lean consuming chia seeds, obese untreated, and rats consumed high-fat diet (HFD) mixed with ground chia seeds for 10 weeks. Anthropometric measures including visceral fat, peri-ovarian fat, ovarian weights, and duration of the estrous cycle were computed. Serum luteinizing (LH), follicular stimulating (FSH), progesterone, estradiol hormones, and tumor necrosis-α (TNF-α) were estimated. Ovarian histopathology and immunohistochemistry (CD31) were performed. Results showed that chia seeds clearly reduced obesity and induced alteration in anthropometric measures with a clear increase in LH and progesterone. Such seeds notably reversed histopathological alteration and reduced TNF-α, and CD31 induced by HFD. Conclusively, chia seeds have a potential protective role against obesity-induced ovarian dysfunction owing to their anti-inflammatory properties.

Genome-wide analysis of fatty acid desaturase genes in chia (Salvia hispanica) reveals their crucial roles in cold response and seed oil formation.

Chia (Salvia hispanica) is a functional food crop with high α-linolenic acid (ALA), the omega-3 essential fatty acid, but its worldwide plantation is limited by cold-intolerance and strict short-photoperiod flowering feature. Fatty acid desaturases (FADs) are responsible for seed oil accumulation, and play important roles in cold stress tolerance of plants. To date, there is no report on systemically genome-wide analysis of FAD genes in chia (ShiFADs). In this study, 31 ShiFAD genes were identified, 3 of which contained 2 alternative splicing transcripts, and they were located in 6 chromosomes of chia. Phylogenetic analysis classified the ShiFAD proteins into 7 groups, with conserved gene structure and MEME motifs within each group. Tandem and segmental duplications coursed the expansion of ShiFAD genes. Numerous cis-regulatory elements, including hormone response elements, growth and development elements, biotic/abiotic stress response elements, and transcription factor binding sites, were predicted in ShiFAD promoters. 24 miRNAs targeting ShiFAD genes were identified at whole-genome level. In total, 15 SSR loci were predicted in ShiFAD genes/promoters. RNA-seq data showed that ShiFAD genes were expressed in various organs with different levels. qRT-PCR detection revealed the inducibility of ShiSAD2 and ShiSAD7 in response to cold stress, and validated the seed-specific expression of ShiSAD11a. Yeast expression of ShiSAD11a confirmed the catalytic activity of its encoded protein, and its heterologous expression in Arabidopsis thaliana significantly increased seed oleic acid content. This work lays a foundation for molecular dissection of chia high-ALA trait and functional study of ShiFAD genes in cold tolerance.

Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) can directly suppress basic ovarian cell functions in two farm animal species and protect ovarian cells from the proliferation-stimulating influence of xylene.

The influence of the functional food plant chia (Salvia hispanica L.) on reproduction functions and its ability to prevent the negative effects of environmental contaminants has not yet been studied. Our study aimed to examine the effect of chia seed extract alone and in combination with xylene on the markers of proliferation, apoptosis and hormones release by cultured bovine and porcine ovarian granulosa cells. The extract of chia reduced all of the measured parameters in bovine and porcine ovarian cells but had no effect on the proliferation of porcine cells. Xylene, stimulated proliferation and IGF-I release and inhibited the release of progesterone and testosterone but not apoptosis of bovine granulosa cells. It promoted proliferation, apoptosis and progesterone output by porcine cells. Chia mitigated the stimulatory effect of xylene on proliferation but not on other parameters in both species. The present results are the first demonstration of a direct effect of chia on basic ovarian cell functions. They confirmed a direct influence of xylene on these functions and found a similar stimulatory action of xylene on bovine and porcine ovarian cell proliferation. The present observations demonstrated species-specific differences in the characteristics of xylene influences on ovarian cell apoptosis and secretory activity. Finally, the present results indicate that chia can be a natural protector against the proliferation-stimulating effects of xylene on ovarian cells in both species.

Effects of Intra-Amniotic Administration of the Hydrolyzed Protein of Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) and Lacticaseibacillus paracasei on Intestinal Functionality, Morphology, and Bacterial Populations, In Vivo (Gallus gallus).

As a protein source, chia contains high concentrations of bioactive peptides. Probiotics support a healthy digestive tract and immune system. Our study evaluated the effects of the intra-amniotic administration of the hydrolyzed chia protein and the probiotic Lacticaseibacillus paracasei on intestinal bacterial populations, the intestinal barrier, the inflammatory response, and brush border membrane functionality in ovo (Gallus gallus). Fertile broiler (Gallus gallus) eggs (n = 9/group) were divided into 5 groups: (NI) non-injected; (H2O) 18 MΩ H2O; (CP) 10 mg/mL hydrolyzed chia protein; (CPP) 10 mg/mL hydrolyzed chia protein + 106 colony-forming unit (CFU) L. paracasei; (P) 106 CFU L. paracasei. The intra-amniotic administration was performed on day 17 of incubation. At hatching (day 21), the animals were euthanized, and the duodenum and cecum content were collected. The probiotic downregulated the gene expression of NF-κß, increased Lactobacillus and E. coli, and reduced Clostridium populations. The hydrolyzed chia protein downregulated the gene expression of TNF-α, increased OCLN, MUC2, and aminopeptidase, reduced Bifidobacterium, and increased Lactobacillus. The three experimental groups improved in terms of intestinal morphology. The current results suggest that the intra-amniotic administration of the hydrolyzed chia protein or a probiotic promoted positive changes in terms of the intestinal inflammation, barrier, and morphology, improving intestinal health.

Comparative Analysis of Metabolic Variations, Antioxidant Profiles and Antimicrobial Activity of Salvia hispanica (Chia) Seed, Sprout, Leaf, Flower, Root and Herb Extracts.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the phytochemical profiles of the seeds, sprouts, leaves, flowers, roots and herb of Salvia hispanica and to demonstrate their significant contribution to antioxidant and antimicrobial activities. Applied methods were: HPLC-DAD coupled with post-column derivatization with ABTS reagent, untargeted metabolomics performed by LC-Q-Orbitrap HRMS, and two-fold micro-dilution broth method, which involved suspending a solution of tested compounds dissolved in DMSO in Mueller-Hinton broth for bacteria or Mueller-Hinton broth with 2% glucose for fungi. Metabolomic profiling using LC-Q-Orbitrap HRMS used in this study yielded the identification and preliminary characterization of one hundred fifteen compounds. The dominant class of compounds was terpenoids (31 compounds), followed by flavonoids (21 compounds), phenolic acids and derivatives (19 compounds), organic acids (16 compounds) and others (fatty acids, sugars and unidentified compounds). The organic and phenolic acids were the most abundant classes in terms of total peak area, with distribution depending on the plant raw materials obtained from S. hispanica. The main compound among this class for all types of extracts was rosmarinic acid which was proven to be the most abundant for antioxidant potential. All tested extracts exhibited considerable antibacterial and antifungal activity. The strongest bioactivity was found in leaf extracts, which presented bactericidal activity against Gram-positive bacteria (S. aureus, S. epidermidis, M. luteus and E. faecalis). The work represents the first compendium of knowledge comparing different S. hispanica plant raw materials in terms of the profile of biologically active metabolites and their contribution to antioxidant, antimicrobial and antifungal activity.

Assessing the pharmacological and biochemical effects of Salvia hispanica (Chia seed) against oxidized Helianthus annuus (sunflower) oil in selected animals.

Oil oxidation is important in terms of taste, nutritive component quality and toxic effect of the oil. In this study, the oxidized sunflower oil was used along with chia seed in rabbits for the determination of its effects on various hematological and serum biochemical parameters as well as on liver histopathology. Three rabbits were fed with oxidized oil (obtained by heating) at the dose rate of 2 ml/kg body weight by mixing it with green fodder. The other rabbit groups were fed with Chia seed at dose rate of 1, 2 and 3 g/kg along with oxidized sunflower oil. Chia seed was fed alone to three rabbits at the dose rate of 2 g/kg body weight. All rabbits were fed regularly for twenty-one days. For the determination of hematological and biochemical parameters, whole blood and serum samples were collected on different days during feeding period. For histopathology, liver samples were used. Significant changes (p<0.05) were noted in the hematology and biochemical indices in the rabbits that were fed with oxidized sunflower oil alone, and along with different doses of Chia seed. In a dose-dependent manner, all these parameters were significantly improved (p<0.05), when the amount of Chia seed was increased. The biochemical and hematological indices were in normal range in the group fed only with Chia seed. In oxidized oil fed group, liver histopathological analysis showed that cholestasis was present at both sides (bile pigment secretion) and zone 3 necrosis with mild inflammatory cells. Mild vacuolization of hepatocytes was also observed. In Chia seed fed group, hepatocyte vacuolization and mild necrosis was noted. It was concluded that oxidized sunflower oil alters the biochemical and hematological parameters and causes liver abnormalities. Chia seeds act as an antioxidant and retrieve those alterations.

Leaf metabolomics and molecular networking of wild type and mutant genotypes of chia (Salvia hispanica L.).

Salvia hispanica L., commonly named Chia, is a food plant from Central America and Australia, producing seeds whose consumption has been increasing in the last decade. Several articles analysed the seeds metabolite content. However, few is known about Chia leaves. This work is the first report on the whole metabolite profile of chia leaves, determined by spectroscopic methods including NMR, GC-MS and LC-MS coupled with chemometrics analysis. Additionally, molecular networking has been applied to the LC-MS data to determine the flavonoid composition. Different chia sources were compared: one commercial (black) and three early flowering (G3, G8 and G17) mutant genotypes cultivated at two irrigation regimes (50 and 100%). Organic extracts were mainly composed by saturated and mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids with palmitic being the most abundant followed by oleic and linolenic acids. Aqueous extracts contained glucose, galactose, and fructose as main sugars. Flavonoids were based on vitexin and orientin and their analogues. Chemical composition of early flowering genotypes was quite similar to commercial black chia with the exception of G8 showing significant differences in the polar phase. A generally highest content of omega-9 fatty acids has been found in the early flowering genotypes along with high content of nutraceuticals suggesting them as a potential source of raw materials for the food/feed industry.

Novel constituents of Salvia hispanica L. (chia) nutlet mucilage and the improved in vitro fermentation of nutlets when ground.

Upon wetting, chia (Salvia hispanica L.) nutlets produce a gel-like capsule of polysaccharides called mucilage that comprises a significant part of their dietary fibre content. Seed/nutlet mucilage is often used as a texture modifying hydrocolloid and bulking dietary fibre due to its water-binding ability, though the utility of mucilage from different sources is highly structure-function dependent. The composition and structure of chia nutlet mucilage is poorly defined, and a better understanding will aid in exploiting its dietary fibre functionality, particularly if, and how, it is utilised by gut microbiota. In this study, microscopy, chromatography, mass spectrometry and glycome profiling techniques showed that chia nutlet mucilage is highly complex, layered, and contains several polymer types. The mucilage comprises a novel xyloamylose containing both ß-linked-xylose and α-linked-glucose, a near-linear xylan that may be sparsely substituted, a modified cellulose domain, and abundant alcohol-soluble oligosaccharides. To assess the dietary fibre functionality of chia nutlet mucilage, an in vitro cumulative gas production technique was used to determine the fermentability of different chia nutlet preparations. The complex nature of chia nutlet mucilage led to poor fermentation where the oligosaccharides appeared to be the only fermentable substrate present in the mucilage. Of note, ground chia nutlets were better fermented than intact whole nutlets, as judged by short chain fatty acid production. Therefore, it is suggested that the benefits of eating chia as a "superfood", could be notably enhanced if the nutlets are ground rather than being consumed whole, improving the bioaccessibility of key nutrients including dietary fibre.