The examination of the relationships among digital addiction, loneliness, shyness, and social anxiety in adolescents / El examen de las relaciones entre adicción digital, soledad, timidez y ansiedad social en adolescentes

La adicción digital, que se determina como un problema común entre los adolescentes en los últimos años, afecta negativamente la vida de los adolescentes en muchos aspectos. El objetivo del estudio es examinar las relaciones entre la adicción digital, la soledad, la timidez y la ansiedad social de los adolescentes. Gate se reunió con adolescentes que completaron la Escala de adicción digital, la versión corta de la Escala de soledad de UCLA, la Escala de timidez y la Escala de gravedad del trastorno de ansiedad social DSM-5 - Formulario infantil. Las hipótesis sugeridas se han probado utilizando los datos recopilados de 991 adolescentes y un análisis de regresión jerárquica. Los resultados de la investigación encontraron una relación positiva y significativa entre la adicción digital, la soledad, la timidez y la ansiedad social entre los adolescentes. Además, los hallazgos muestran que la adicción digital, la soledad y la timidez predicen la ansiedad social. Los resultados obtenidos demuestran que la adicción digital, la soledad y la timidez tienen efecto sobre la ansiedad social. Según los hallazgos, se sugiere aplicar diversas intervenciones educativas por parte de profesionales de la salud mental a adolescentes que presenten signos de adicción digital, soledad, timidez y ansiedad social.(AU)

Digital addiction, which is determined as a common problem among adolescents in the last years, affects the lives of adolescents nega-tively in terms of many aspects. The aim of the study is to examine the re-lationships between adolescents' digital addiction, loneliness, shyness and social anxiety. Gate gathered from adolescents who completed Digital Ad-diction Scale, Short Form of UCLA Loneliness Scale, Shyness Scale, and DSM-5 Social Anxiety Disorder Severity Scale -Child Form. The suggest-ed hypotheses have been tested using the data gathered from 991 adoles-cents and hierarchical regression analysis. The research findings found a positive and significant relationship between digital addiction, loneliness, shyness and social anxiety among adolescents. Furthermore, the findings show that digital addiction, loneliness, and shyness predict social anxiety. The results obtained prove that digital addiction, loneliness and shyness have an effect on social anxiety. According to the findings, it is suggested to applyvarious educational interventions by mental health professionals to adolescents who show signs of digital addiction, loneliness, shyness, and social anxiety.(AU)

Revisiting associations between behavioral inhibition/shyness and social competence in young Chinese children: Sociohistorical imprint on three samples.

While negative associations between behavioral inhibition/shyness and social competence are well established for children from Western cultures, the directions of these associations have been inconsistent for Chinese children, partly due to the ongoing social-cultural changes in China. Drawing from three samples of young Chinese children (born between 2009 and 2019), we aim at examining how inhibition/shyness predicts cooperative behaviors and prosocial behaviors throughout early childhood. In Study 1 (N = 700, children aged between 36 and 72 months), mother-reported inhibition/shyness was negatively associated with mother-reported cooperative and prosocial behaviors during the preschool years. In Study 2 (N = 251, at 6, 15, 25, and 37 months of children's ages), mother-reported inhibition/shyness in infancy was negatively associated with mother-reported cooperative behaviors but was not related to observed cooperative behaviors at the early preschool age. Infancy inhibition/shyness was negatively associated with mother-reported and observed prosocial behaviors. In Study 3 (N = 95, at 14, 25, 38, and 60 months of children's ages), the inhibition/shyness trait, assessed by both observation and maternal report, did not predict any indicators of cooperative behaviors. Early childhood inhibition/shyness, however, still predicted fewer observed and mother-reported prosocial behaviors. On balance, our research supports a negative association between early inhibition/shyness and later prosocial behaviors. The mixed findings concerning cooperative behaviors are interpreted in light of sociopolitical changes in China during the past two decades. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Children's shyness and early stages of emotional face processing.

The ability to detect and recognize facial emotions emerges in childhood and is important for understanding social cues, but we know relatively little about how individual differences in temperament may influence early emotional face processing. We used a sample of 419 children (Mage = 10.57 years, SD = 1.75; 48% female; 77% White) to examine the relation between temperamental shyness and early stages of emotional face processing (assessed using the P100 and N170 event-related potentials) during different facial expressions (neutral, anger, fear, and happy). We found that higher temperamental shyness was related to greater P100 activation to faces expressing anger and fear relative to neutral faces. Further, lower temperamental shyness was related to greater N170 activation to faces expressing anger and fear relative to neutral faces. There were no relations between temperamental shyness and neural activation to happy faces relative to neutral faces for P100 or N170, suggesting specificity to faces signaling threat. We discuss findings in the context of understanding the early processing of facial emotional display of threat among shy children.

May I come in? A probe into the contributions of self-esteem, teacher support, and critical thinking to anxiety and shyness in language classes.

Many students feel uncomfortable when obliged to communicate in English. Students' fear of speaking English is influenced by psychological reasons such as the fear of failing, being misunderstood, and making grammatical errors. Students' active participation in English class discussions might be hindered by shyness, nervousness, lack of confidence, and motivation. Helping these reserved students gain self-assurance and perfect their spoken English is a top priority for all English language instructors. In the classroom, teachers may use some simple methods to encourage their reserved students to open up and speak English with more ease and confidence. The existing literature on students' shyness shows that the gap in this realm is great and a critical look is needed. To this end, the current research intended to gauge the effects of self-esteem, teacher support, and critical thinking on anxiety and shyness in language classes. 385 language learners attending English language institutions took part in this research. They were at intermediate and upper intermediate levels. The findings of both confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and structural equation modeling (SEM) point to the fact that improving students' self-esteem, teacher support, and critical thinking may have a moderating effect on students 'anxiety and shyness in language learning. The implications of this inquiry may be advantageous for language learners, language instructors, as well as policymakers.

Shyness and inhibitory control in preschool dyads: An actor-partner model of social behavior.

The risk potentiation model of cognitive control posits that inhibitory control heightens children's risk for problematic outcomes in the context of shyness because it limits shy children's ability to engage flexibly with their environment. Although there is empirical support for the risk potentiation model, most studies have been restricted to parent report of children's outcomes and do not consider the influence of shyness and inhibitory control on other children's social behavior. In the present study, we used an actor-partner interdependence model to examine whether shyness and inhibitory control at Time 1 (N = 105, 52 girls, Mage = 3.50 years; 87% White; Mincome = between $75,000 and $100,000 in Canadian dollars) predicted children's own and their partner's observed social behavior with an unfamiliar peer at Time 2 (Mage = 4.76 years). When the child's own inhibitory control was high, the child's own shyness was negatively associated with their own approach behaviors but negatively associated with their partner's avoidance behaviors. However, when the child's own inhibitory control was low, the child's own shyness was unrelated to their own approach behaviors but positively associated with their partner's avoidance behaviors. Although inhibitory control was negatively associated with approach-related behavior for some shy children, this did not translate to more avoidance from the social partner. These results highlight the importance of examining the child's own behavior in addition to their partner's behavior when considering children's socioemotional development. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Effects of smartphone-based hypnotic intervention for undergraduate students' shyness during the COVID-19 pandemic: A randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Since the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, university students have been exposed to a heightened vulnerability towards developing psychological issues, such as psychological distress and shyness. Internet-based interventions offer a convenient avenue for scalability, thus prompting the development of a smartphone-based hypnotic intervention aimed at addressing shyness among university students. OBJECTIVE: We devised an innovative smartphone-based hypnotic intervention called mHypnosis to examine its impact on shyness among undergraduate students. Furthermore, we aimed to investigate whether the apprehension of negative evaluations before treatment could serve as a predictor for the effectiveness of the intervention on shyness. METHODS: Eighty students with high shyness scores were randomly assigned to the experimental group and the control group. Another 40 participants with low shyness score were selected as the baseline group. The Shyness Scale (SS), Fear of Negative evaluation scale (FNE), Self-Acceptance Questionnaire (SAQ), and Self-Esteem Scale (SES) were used to evaluate the effect of hypnotic intervention. RESULTS: Before the intervention, the scores of the experimental and control groups on the SS, FNE, SAQ, and SES were higher than those in the baseline group (p < 0.05). There was no significant difference in scores between the experimental and control group (p > 0.05). After the intervention, the scores of the SS, FNE, SAQ, and SES were significantly lower in the experimental group than those in the control group (p < 0.05). The pretest score of FNE could predict the shyness score after hypnotic intervention (B = 0.35, p < 0.05). CONCLUSION: Smartphone-based hypnotic intervention had a significant effect on ameliorating shyness during the COVID-19 pandemic; fear of negative evaluation can be a target for treating shyness.

Associations between Shyness and Victimization with Substance Use Outcomes in the National Comorbidity and Collaborative Psychiatric Epidemiological Surveys.

Background: There is a lack of consensus among researchers on the association between shyness and substance use. This may be due to unexamined modifiers of this association, such as childhood victimization. Objective: The purpose of this study was to examine if experiencing different types of victimization (emotional, physical, sexual, and poly-victimization) modifies the association between shyness and substance use outcomes in adults. In this study, we performed moderation analyses to investigate whether victimization moderates the association between shyness and substance use/abuse. Data came from the National Comorbidity Survey Baseline (NCS-1; 1990-1992) and the Collaborative Psychiatric Epidemiological Surveys (CPES; 2001-2003). Substance use outcomes included were binge drinking, tobacco use, other drug use, and DSM-III-R (NCS-1)/DSM-IV (CPES) classifications of alcohol and drug abuse. Results: Results from NCS-1 supported a moderating role of childhood victimization on the relationship between shyness and tobacco use only, specifically for emotional (p = .031) and physical (p < .001) victimization, and poly-victimization (p < .001). Results from CPES showed a moderating role of lifetime sexual abuse for binge drinking (p = .017), other drug use (p = .028), and alcohol abuse (p = .004). For both datasets, the associations between shyness and substance use outcomes were stronger when there were no victimization histories. Conclusion: These findings give insight on the complexity of the interaction between shyness and victimization. Future research could focus on mechanisms, such as cognitive processes, that may contribute to interactions between shyness and victimization history on substance outcomes.

The Influence of Shyness on Language Assessment.

PURPOSE: The goal of this study is to examine how shyness affects a child's performance on language assessments that vary in sociability. We hypothesized that accuracy on language tasks would be driven by shyness such that shyer children would perform better on nonsociable tasks compared to sociable tasks. METHOD: The procedures followed a quasi-experimental design. One hundred twenty-two participants, ages 17-42 months and varying in their temperament, each underwent a series of three language tasks. The order of tasks was randomized, and each task varied in the social interaction required: a looking task, a pointing task, and a production task. Data were collected via Zoom, and parents reported their child's shyness level via the Early Child Behavior Questionnaire. RESULTS: Shyness was compared with participants' accuracy across the three tests while controlling for age and vocabulary percentile. There were significant differences in children's performance across the tasks, with respect to shyness. Shyer children performed worse on the production task compared to less shy children. All children did well on the pointing task regardless of shyness level, but performance was more nuanced on the looking task such that shyer children were at times more accurate but also less likely to respond in general. CONCLUSIONS: As shown by these results, shyer and less shy children respond differentially to methods of language assessment that vary in sociability. It is important for clinicians to acknowledge shyness when choosing an appropriate assessment of children's language. Future direction includes assessing performance on standardized assessments. SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIAL: https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.23845521.

Disparate behavioral types in wild and reared juveniles of gilthead seabream.

Fish differ consistently in behavior within the same species and population, reflecting distinct behavioral types (BTs). Comparing the behavior of wild and reared individuals provides an excellent opportunity to delve into the ecological and evolutionary consequences of BTs. In this work, we evaluated the behavioral variation of wild and reared juvenile gilthead seabreams, Sparus aurata, a highly relevant species for aquaculture and fisheries. We quantified behavioral variation along the five major axes of fish behavioral traits (exploration-avoidance, aggressiveness, sociability, shyness-boldness, and activity) using standardized behavioral tests and a deep learning tracking algorithm for behavioral annotation. Results revealed significant repeatability in all five behavior traits, suggesting high consistency of individual behavioral variation across the different axes in this species. We found reared fish to be more aggressive, social and active compared to their wild conspecifics. Reared individuals also presented less variance in their aggressiveness, lacking very aggressive and very tame individuals. Phenotypic correlation decomposition between behavioral types revealed two different behavioral syndromes: exploration-sociability and exploration-activity. Our work establishes the first baseline of repeatability scores in wild and reared gilthead seabreams, providing novel insight into the behavior of this important commercial species with implications for fisheries and aquaculture.

Developmental patterns of children's shyness: Relations with physiological, emotional, and regulatory responses to being treated unfairly.

The dysregulation of social fear has been widely studied in children's shyness, but we know little about how shy children regulate during unfair treatment. We first characterized developmental patterns of children's shyness (N = 304, ngirls = 153; 74% White, 26% Other) across 2 (Mage = 2.07), 3 (Mage = 3.08), 4 (Mage = 4.08), and 6 (Mage = 6.58) years of age. Data collection occurred from 2007 to 2014. At age 6, the high stable group had higher cardiac vagal withdrawal and lower expressed sadness and approach-related regulatory strategy than the low stable group when being treated unfairly. Although shy children may be more physiologically impacted by being treated unfairly, they may mask their sadness to signal appeasement.

Mutismo selectivo: cuando la timidez se hace extrema / Selective mutism: when shyness becomes extreme

El mutismo selectivo es un trastorno poco frecuente y a menudo infradiagnosticado, que puede afectar al rendimiento escolar y repercutir negativamente en su desarrollo. Ocurre antes de los 5 años y está caracterizado por la incapacidad de comunicarse en ámbitos donde el niño no se siente cómodo, como puede ser la escuela; en cambio, en otros lugares, como el domicilio, se comunica y actúa sin problemas. Genera inquietud familiar. Su tratamiento principal es la terapia cognitivo conductual. La combinación de esta terapia con la administración de fármacos se reserva para casos más graves. Se describe a continuación un caso diagnosticado hace 6 meses y en tratamiento desde entonces (AU)

Selective mutism is a less frequent disorder, often underdiagnosed, which negatively affects the child’s development and school performance. This disorder takes place before the age of five. It is characterized with the incapacity to speak in places where the child does not feel comfortable, as school, but at home they speak without problem. In fact, the detection occurs at school, and generates family distress due to their surprise for their child’s attitude. The treatment is based on cognitive-conductive therapy, and just in severe cases pharmacotherapy is needed. A case diagnosed 6 months ago and under treatment since then is described below. (AU)

The more you avoid, the worse you will get: a cross-lagged panel model of shyness, mobile phone dependence and depression.

BACKGROUND: The current situation of adolescent depression is relatively serious, and has aroused widespread concern. Aim: This study aimed to examine the relationship between shyness, mobile phone dependence and depression through a 12-month longitudinal survey. METHODS: A total of 1214 adolescents participated in the study. Cross-lagged models were adopted for data analysis. RESULTS: The results showed that significant positive relationships exist among shyness, mobile phone dependence and depression. Shyness at W2 mediated the relationship between mobile phone dependence at W1 and depression at W3. Mobile phone dependence at W2 played a mediating role between depression at W1 and depression at W3. CONCLUSION: This study revealed the possible reciprocal associations between shyness, mobile phone dependence and depression in adolescents. This enlightened us that incorporating shyness and mobile phone dependence interventions into prevention designs for depression in adolescents may be beneficial.

Shy, happy, calm, and controlled: Temperament correlates of socioemotional adjustment in toddlerhood.

Understanding heterogeneity in shy or inhibited children's risk for poor socioemotional adjustment can inform intervention targets. The present study considered temperament traits associated with approach and regulation that may alter trajectories away from internalizing behaviors and poor socioemotional competence among shy toddlers. Fifty-five 22-24-month-old children (22 boys) preselected for parent-reported shyness were observed during laboratory tasks designed to measure shyness, activity level, positive affect, and inhibitory control between January 2016 and January 2018. Basal respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) was obtained for a subset of the sample from recordings of cardiac activity as toddlers watched a neutral video. Hierarchical regression analyses predicted internalizing and competence from activity level, positive affect, inhibitory control, and basal RSA, alone and in interaction with shyness, while controlling for child gender. Activity level was positively associated with internalizing behaviors, and inhibitory control and positive affect were negatively associated with internalizing behaviors. Importantly, shyness was associated with more internalizing behaviors among children low in inhibitory control or high in basal RSA, but not among children high in inhibitory control or low in basal RSA. Relations between temperament traits and socioemotional adjustment were specific to internalizing behaviors and did not generalize to competence. The present findings suggest that in toddlerhood positive affect and inhibitory control may serve as protective factors for shy children, lessening risk for internalizing problems, whereas high activity or greater basal RSA may forecast risk. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Children's shyness and physiological arousal to a peer's social stress.

Previous work has shown that children's shyness is related to personal anxiety during social stress, but we know little about how shyness is related to anxiety during a peer's social stress. Children (Mage  = 10.22 years, SD = 0.81, N = 62) were paired with an unfamiliar peer and engaged in a speech task while electrocardiography was recorded. We modeled changes in children's heart rate, a physiological correlate of anxiety, while they observed their peer prepare and deliver a speech. Results revealed that the observing child's shyness related to increases in their heart rate during their peer's preparation period, but modulation of this arousal was sensitive to the presenting peer's anxious behavior while delivering their speech. Specifically, if the presenting child displayed high levels of anxious behavior, the observing child's shyness was related to further increases in heart rate, but if the presenting child displayed low levels of anxious behavior, the observing child's shyness was related to decreases in heart rate from the preparation period. Shy children may experience physiological arousal to a peer's social stress but can regulate this arousal based on social cues from the peer, which may be due to heightened social threat detection and/or empathic anxiety.

Latent profiles of children's shyness: Behavioral, affective, and physiological components.

Shyness can manifest on behavioral, affective, and physiological levels, but little is known about how these components cluster. We coded behavioral expressions of avoidance/inhibition, collected self-reported nervousness, and measured cardiac vagal withdrawal in 152 children (Mage  = 7.82 years, 73 girls, 82% White) to a speech task in 2018-2021. A latent profile analysis using these behavioral, affective, and physiological indicators revealed four profiles: average reactive (43%), lower affective reactive (20%), higher affective reactive (26%), and consistently higher reactive (11%). Membership in the higher reactive profile predicted higher parent-reported temperamental shyness across 2 years. Findings provide empirical support for the long-theorized idea that shyness might exist as an emotional state but also represents a distinct temperamental quality for some children.

iGen or shyGen? Generational Differences in Shyness.

Generation Z (1997-2012) has been characterized in the popular media as more socially inhibited, cautious, and risk averse than prior generations, but are these differences found between generations on an empirical level? And, if so, are these differences observable within generations in response to acute events such as the COVID-19 pandemic? Using a simplified time-lagged design to control for age effects, we examined between-group differences in self-reported shyness in young adult participants (N = 806, age: 17-25 years) at the same developmental age and university from the millennial generation (tested: 1999-2001; n = 266, Mage = 19.67 years, 72.9% female) and Generation Z (tested: 2018-2020), the latter generation stratified into prepandemic (n = 263, M = 18.86 years, 82.4% female) and midpandemic (n = 277, Mage = 18.67 years, 79.6% female) groups. After first establishing measurement invariance to ensure trustworthy group comparisons, we found significantly higher mean levels of shyness across each successive cohort, starting with millennials, through Generation Z before the pandemic, to Generation Z during the pandemic.

Timing of Violence Exposure and Girls' Temperament Stability From Childhood to Adolescence.

Individual differences in temperament (e.g., negative emotionality) are robust early predictors of emotional and behavioral health. Although temperament is often conceptualized as relatively stable across the lifespan, evidence suggests that it may change over time as a function of social context. Extant studies have been limited by cross-sectional or short-term longitudinal designs that have precluded tests of stability as well as factors that may influence stability across developmental periods. In addition, few studies have tested the impact of social contexts that are common for children living in urban and under-resourced environments, such as exposure to community violence. In the present study we hypothesized that levels of negative emotionality, activity, and shyness would decrease across development from childhood to mid-adolescence as a function of early exposure to violence in the Pittsburgh Girls Study, a community study of girls enriched for families living in low-resourced neighborhoods. Temperament was assessed by parent- and teacher-report on the Emotionality Activity Sociability Shyness Temperament Survey in childhood (5-8-years-old), early-adolescence (11-years-old), and mid-adolescence (15-years-old). Violence exposure (e.g., victim of or witness to violent crime, exposure to domestic violence) was assessed annually via child and parent report. Results showed that on average, combined caregiver and teacher reports of negative emotionality and activity level exhibited small but significant reductions from childhood to adolescence, whereas shyness remained stable. Violence exposure in early adolescence predicted increases in negative emotionality and shyness by mid-adolescence. Violence exposure was not associated with stability of activity level. Our findings suggest that exposure to violence, particularly in early adolescence, amplifies individual differences in shyness and negative emotionality, underlying an important pathway of risk for developmental psychopathology.

The relationship between temperament and dental fear and anxiety: a systematic review.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the relationship between temperament traits and dental fear and anxiety (DFA) in children and adolescents by the means of a systematic review (PROSPERO #CRD42020207578). METHODS: The PEO (Population, Exposure, and Outcome) strategy was followed using children and adolescents as the population, temperament as the exposure, and DFA as the outcome. A systematic search for observational studies (cross-sectional, case-control, and cohort) without restrictions on year or language of publication was performed in seven databases (PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, Lilacs, Embase, Cochrane, and PsycINFO) in September 2021. Grey literature search was performed in OpenGrey, Google Scholar, and in the reference list of included studies. Study selection, data extraction, and risk of bias assessment were carried out independently by two reviewers. The Fowkes and Fulton Critical Assessment Guideline was used to assess methodological quality of each study included. The GRADE approach was performed to determine the certainty of evidence of relationship between temperament traits. RESULTS: This study recovered 1362 articles, of which 12 were included. Despite the high heterogeneity of methodological aspects, qualitative synthesis by subgroups showed a positive association/correlation between emotionality, neuroticism, and shyness with DFA in children and adolescents. Different subgroups analysis showed similar results. Eight studies were classified as having low methodological quality. CONCLUSION: The main shortcoming of the included studies is the high risk of bias and a very low certainty of evidence. Within its limitations, children and adolescents with a temperament-like emotionality/neuroticism and shyness are more likely to present higher DFA.

Children's social wariness toward a different-race stranger relates to individual differences in temperament.

When children first meet a stranger, there is great variation in how much they will approach and engage with the stranger. While individual differences in this type of behavior-called social wariness-are well-documented in temperament research, surprisingly little attention has been paid to the social groups (such as race) of the stranger and how these characteristics might influence children's social wariness. In contrast, research on children's social bias and interracial friendships rarely examines individual differences in temperament and how temperament might influence cross-group interactions. The current study bridges the gap across these different fields of research by examining whether the racial group of an unfamiliar peer or adult moderates the association between temperament and the social wariness that children display. Utilizing a longitudinal dataset that collected multiple measurements of children's temperament and behaviors (including parent-reported shyness and social wariness toward unfamiliar adults and peers) across early childhood, we found that 2- to 7-year-old children with high parent-reported shyness showed greater social wariness toward a different-race stranger compared to a same-race stranger, whereas children with low parent-reported shyness did not. These results point to the importance of considering racial group membership in temperament research and the potential role that temperament might play in children's cross-race interactions. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: Previous research on temperament has not considered how the race of strangers could influence children's social wariness. We find evidence that 2- to 7-year-old children with high parent-reported shyness show greater social wariness toward a different-race stranger compared to a same-race stranger. These results point to the importance of considering racial group membership in temperament research. Our findings also suggest temperament may play a role in children's cross-race interactions.

Prenatal exposure to air pollution and childhood internalizing problems: roles of shyness and anterior cingulate cortex activity.

BACKGROUND: Prenatal exposure to air pollution increases the risk for psychiatric disorders characterized by internalizing problems. In this study, we examined the roles of shyness and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) activity in the association between prenatal exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and children's internalizing problems at 7-9 years old. METHODS: Participants include 53 children (31 girls, 22 boys). Personal air monitoring was conducted over 48 continuous hours during the third trimester of pregnancy to measure 8 PAHs. Mothers reported children's shyness (Emotionality Activity Sociability Temperament Survey) at age 5 and internalizing problems (Child Behavior Checklist) at ages 7-9. ACC activity was measured by fMRI during the Simon Spatial Incompatibility task at ages 7-9. RESULTS: Shyness mediated the association between prenatal PAH exposure and internalizing problems. Higher prenatal PAH exposure predicted increased shyness, which in turn predicted greater internalizing problems. Moreover, left ACC activity during the Simon task moderated the association between prenatal PAH exposure and internalizing problems. Prenatal PAH exposure predicted increased risk for internalizing problems only when children showed heightened left ACC activity during the resolution of cognitive conflict. CONCLUSIONS: Our study innovatively synthesizes the fields of developmental psychology and environmental health science to offer new insights into the risk factors for anxiety disorders. Facilitating the development of healthy reactive and regulatory processes may improve the developmental outcomes for children highly exposed to air pollution.