Small Spleen Peptides (SSPs) Shape Dendritic Cell Differentiation through Modulation of Extracellular ATP Synthesis Profile.

Restoring peripheral immune tolerance is crucial for addressing autoimmune diseases. An ancient mechanism in maintaining the balance between inflammation and tolerance is the ratio of extracellular ATP (exATP) and adenosine. Our previous research demonstrated the effectiveness of small spleen peptides (SSPs) in inhibiting psoriatic arthritis progression, even in the presence of the pro-inflammatory cytokine TNFα, by transforming dendritic cells (DCs) into tolerogenic cells and fostering regulatory Foxp3+ Treg cells. Here, we identified thymosins as the primary constituents of SSPs, but recombinant thymosin peptides were less efficient in inhibiting arthritis than SSPs. Since Tß4 is an ecto-ATPase-binding protein, we hypothesized that SSPs regulate exATP profiles. Real-time investigation of exATP levels in DCs revealed that tolerogenic stimulation led to robust de novo exATP synthesis followed by significant degradation, while immunogenic stimulation resulted in a less pronounced increase in exATP and less effective degradation. These contrasting exATP profiles were crucial in determining whether DCs entered an inflammatory or tolerogenic state, highlighting the significance of SSPs as natural regulators of peripheral immunological tolerance, with potential therapeutic benefits for autoimmune diseases. Finally, we demonstrated that the tolerogenic phenotype of SSPs is mainly influenced by adenosine receptors, and in vivo administration of SSPs inhibits psoriatic skin inflammation.

Endotoxin tolerance ameliorates lipopolysaccharide/D-galactosamine-induced acute liver failure by negative regulation of the NF-κB/NLRP3 and activation of Nrf2/HO-1 via Sitr1.

Acute liver failure (ALF) is a potentially fatal disorder characterized by extensive hepatocyte necrosis and rapid decline in liver function. Numerous factors, including oxidative stress, cell death, and inflammatory responses, are associated with its pathogenesis. Endotoxin tolerance (ET) refers to the phenomenon in which the body or cells exhibit low or no response to high-dose lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation after pre-stimulation with low-dose LPS. However, the specific mechanism through which ET regulates LPS/D-galactosamine (D-GalN)-induced ALF remains unclear. An ALF mouse model was established by intraperitoneal injection of D-GalN (400 mg/kg) and LPS (10 mg/kg). A low dose of LPS (0.1 mg/kg/d) was continuously administered to mice for 5 d before modeling to assess the protective effect of ET. The data from this study showed that ET alleviated the inflammatory response in mice with LPS/D-GalN-induced ALF. ET inhibited LPS-induced oxidative damage and pyroptosis in macrophages in vitro. RNA sequencing analysis showed that the NF-κB/NLRP3 pathway was linked to the anti-inflammatory and antioxidative effects of ET. Furthermore, using western blot, RT-qPCR, and immunofluorescence, we verified that ET inhibited the NF-κB/NLRP3 pathway and triggered the Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathway to attenuate oxidative stress and cell pyroptosis. Sirt1 knockdown reversed this protective effect. In summary, our research elucidates that ET prevents ALF advancement by upregulating Sirt1 levels, triggering the Nrf2/HO-1 signaling axis, and suppressing the NF-κB/NLRP3 signaling cascade to inhibit oxidative stress and cell pyroptosis. Our results provide a mechanistic explanation for the protective effect of ET against ALF.

The Biologic IRL201805 Alters Immune Tolerance Leading to Prolonged Pharmacodynamics and Efficacy in Rheumatoid Arthritis Patients.

A homologue of binding immunoglobulin protein/BiP-IRL201805 alters the function of immune cells in pre-clinical in vivo and in vitro studies. The aim of the study was to select biomarkers that clearly delineate between RA patients who respond to IRL201805 and placebo patients and reveal the immunological mode of action of IRL201805 driving the extended pharmacodynamics observed in responding patients. Biomarkers that distinguished between responding patients and placebo patients included downregulation of serum interferon-γ and IL-1ß; upregulation of anti-inflammatory mediators, serum soluble CTLA-4, and intracellular monocyte expression of IDO; and sustained increased CD39 expression on CD3+CD4+CD25hi CD127lo regulatory T cells. In the responding patients, selected biomarkers verified that the therapeutic effect could be continuous for at least 12 weeks post-infusion. In secondary co-culture, pre-infusion PBMCs cultured 1:1 with autologous PBMCs, isolated at later time-points during the trial, showed significantly inhibited IL-6 and IL-1ß production upon anti-CD3/CD28 stimulation demonstrating IRL201805 alters the function of immune cells leading to prolonged pharmacodynamics confirmed by biomarker differences. IRL201805 may be the first of a new class of biologic drug providing long-term drug-free therapy in RA.

Retinoic acid-loaded liposomes induce human mucosal CD103+ dendritic cells that inhibit Th17 cells and drive regulatory T-cell development in vitro.

The active vitamin A metabolite, all-trans-retinoic acid (RA), primes precursor dendritic cells (DCs) into a mucosal phenotype with tolerogenic properties characterized by the expression of integrin CD103. CD103+ DCs can counteract pathogenic Th1 and Th17 in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) or celiac disease (CD). Tolerogenic manipulation of DCs using nanoparticles carrying tolerogenic adjuvants and disease-specific antigens is a valuable treatment strategy to induce antigen-specific mucosal tolerance in vivo. Here, we investigated the effects of RA-loaded liposomes on human DC phenotype and function, including DC-driven T-cell development, both during the generation of monocyte-derived DCs (moDCs) as well as by priming immature moDCs. RA liposomes drove CD103+ DC differentiation as well as ALDH1A2 expression in DCs. Neutrophil-dependent Th17 cell development was reduced by RA-liposome-differentiated and RA-liposome-primed DCs. Moreover, RA liposome treatment shifted T-cell development toward a Th2 cell profile. Importantly, RA liposomes induced the development of IL-10-producing and FoxP3+ regulatory T cells (Tregs) of various Treg subsets, including ICOS+ Tregs, that were potent inhibitors of bystander memory T-cell proliferation. Taken together, RA-loaded liposomes could be a novel treatment avenue for IBD or CD patients.

A microbiota-modulated checkpoint directs immunosuppressive intestinal T cells into cancers.

Antibiotics (ABX) compromise the efficacy of programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) blockade in cancer patients, but the mechanisms underlying their immunosuppressive effects remain unknown. By inducing the down-regulation of mucosal addressin cell adhesion molecule 1 (MAdCAM-1) in the ileum, post-ABX gut recolonization by Enterocloster species drove the emigration of enterotropic α4ß7+CD4+ regulatory T 17 cells into the tumor. These deleterious ABX effects were mimicked by oral gavage of Enterocloster species, by genetic deficiency, or by antibody-mediated neutralization of MAdCAM-1 and its receptor, α4ß7 integrin. By contrast, fecal microbiota transplantation or interleukin-17A neutralization prevented ABX-induced immunosuppression. In independent lung, kidney, and bladder cancer patient cohorts, low serum levels of soluble MAdCAM-1 had a negative prognostic impact. Thus, the MAdCAM-1-α4ß7 axis constitutes an actionable gut immune checkpoint in cancer immunosurveillance.

Dupilumab Leads to Clinical Improvements including the Acquisition of Tolerance to Causative Foods in Non-Eosinophilic Esophagitis Eosinophilic Gastrointestinal Disorders.

A recent report showed that most pediatric cases of non-eosinophilic esophagitis (EoE) eosinophilic gastrointestinal disorders (EGIDs) (non-EoE EGIDs) are persistent and severe compared with those of EoE, thus requiring further effective therapeutic approaches. In this study, we present the first case based on a systematic search of non-EoE EGID for which tolerance to causative foods and histological and symptomatic improvements were achieved following dupilumab administration, after elimination diets and omalizumab and mepolizumab treatments. Driven by this case, we investigated the efficacies of biological treatments in non-EoE EGID cases based on the patient studied herein, and other patients identified in the conducted systematic review. Seven articles, including five different biologics, were reviewed. Both clinical efficacies and impact differences among the targeted molecules are demonstrated in this study. Our findings show that dupilumab may affect mechanisms that can suppress symptoms induced by offending foods that are different from those induced by other biologics as identified in the conducted systematic review. Additional studies are required to address the unmet needs of non-EoE EGID treatments.

Tissue CD14+CD8+ T cells reprogrammed by myeloid cells and modulated by LPS.

The liver is bathed in bacterial products, including lipopolysaccharide transported from the intestinal portal vasculature, but maintains a state of tolerance that is exploited by persistent pathogens and tumours1-4. The cellular basis mediating this tolerance, yet allowing a switch to immunity or immunopathology, needs to be better understood for successful immunotherapy of liver diseases. Here we show that a variable proportion of CD8+ T cells compartmentalized in the human liver co-stain for CD14 and other prototypic myeloid membrane proteins and are enriched in close proximity to CD14high myeloid cells in hepatic zone 2. CD14+CD8+ T cells preferentially accumulate within the donor pool in liver allografts, among hepatic virus-specific and tumour-infiltrating responses, and in cirrhotic ascites. CD14+CD8+ T cells exhibit increased turnover, activation and constitutive immunomodulatory features with high homeostatic IL-10 and IL-2 production ex vivo, and enhanced antiviral/anti-tumour effector function after TCR engagement. This CD14+CD8+ T cell profile can be recapitulated by the acquisition of membrane proteins-including the lipopolysaccharide receptor complex-from mononuclear phagocytes, resulting in augmented tumour killing by TCR-redirected T cells in vitro. CD14+CD8+ T cells express integrins and chemokine receptors that favour interactions with the local stroma, which can promote their induction through CXCL12. Lipopolysaccharide can also increase the frequency of CD14+CD8+ T cells in vitro and in vivo, and skew their function towards the production of chemotactic and regenerative cytokines. Thus, bacterial products in the gut-liver axis and tissue stromal factors can tune liver immunity by driving myeloid instruction of CD8+ T cells with immunomodulatory ability.

Proinflammatory activity of VEGF-targeted treatment through reversal of tumor endothelial cell anergy.

PURPOSE: Ongoing angiogenesis renders the tumor endothelium unresponsive to inflammatory cytokines and interferes with adhesion of leukocytes, resulting in escape from immunity. This process is referred to as tumor endothelial cell anergy. We aimed to investigate whether anti-angiogenic agents can overcome endothelial cell anergy and provide pro-inflammatory conditions. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: Tissues of renal cell carcinoma (RCC) patients treated with VEGF pathway-targeted drugs and control tissues were subject to RNAseq and immunohistochemical profiling of the leukocyte infiltrate. Analysis of adhesion molecule regulation in cultured endothelial cells, in a preclinical model and in human tissues was performed and correlated to leukocyte infiltration. RESULTS: It is shown that treatment of RCC patients with the drugs sunitinib or bevacizumab overcomes tumor endothelial cell anergy. This treatment resulted in an augmented inflammatory state of the tumor, characterized by enhanced infiltration of all major leukocyte subsets, including T cells, regulatory T cells, macrophages of both M1- and M2-like phenotypes and activated dendritic cells. In vitro, exposure of angiogenic endothelial cells to anti-angiogenic drugs normalized ICAM-1 expression. In addition, a panel of tyrosine kinase inhibitors was shown to increase transendothelial migration of both non-adherent and monocytic leukocytes. In primary tumors of RCC patients, ICAM-1 expression was found to be significantly increased in both the sunitinib and bevacizumab-treated groups. Genomic analysis confirmed the correlation between increased immune cell infiltration and ICAM-1 expression upon VEGF-targeted treatment. CONCLUSION: The results support the emerging concept that anti-angiogenic therapy can boost immunity and show how immunotherapy approaches can benefit from combination with anti-angiogenic compounds.

Short-chain fatty acids inhibit the activation of T lymphocytes and myeloid cells and induce innate immune tolerance.

The intestinal microbiota contributes to gut immune homeostasis, where short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) function as the major mediators. We aimed to elucidate the immunomodulatory effects of acetate, propionate, and butyrate. With that in mind, we sought to characterise the expression of SCFA receptors and transporters as well as SCFAs' impact on the activation of different immune cells. Whereas all three SCFAs decreased tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α production in activated T cells, only butyrate and propionate inhibited interferon (IFN)-γ, interleukin (IL)-17, IL-13, and IL-10 production. Butyrate and propionate inhibited the expression of the chemokine receptors CCR9 and CCR10 in activated T- and B-cells, respectively. Similarly, butyrate and propionate were effective inhibitors of IL-1ß, IL-6, TNF-α, and IL-10 production in myeloid cells upon lipopolysaccharide and R848 stimulation. Acetate was less efficient at inhibiting cytokine production except for IFN-α. Moreover, SCFAs inhibited the production of IL-6 and TNF-α in monocytes, myeloid dendritic cells (mDC), and plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDC), whereas acetate effects were relatively more prominent in pDCs. In monocytes and mDCs, acetate was a less efficient inhibitor, but it was equally effective in inhibiting pDCs activation. We also studied the ability of SCFAs to induce trained immunity or tolerance. Butyrate and propionate - but not acetate - prevented Toll-like receptor-mediated activation in SCFA-trained cells, as demonstrated by a reduced production of IL-6 and TNF-α. Our findings indicate that butyrate and propionate are equally efficient in inhibiting the adaptive and innate immune response and did not induce trained immunity. The findings may be explained by differential SCFA receptor and transporter expression profiles of the immune cells.

ACIP update to the evidence to recommendations for a 2nd COVID-19 booster dose in adults ages 50 years and older and immunocompromised Individuals

The emergence of SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), has led to a global pandemic with substantial societal and economic impacts on individual persons and communities. In the United States, more than 80 million cases and more than 986,000 COVID-19-associated deaths have been reported as of April 17, 2022. Persons of all ages are at risk for infection and severe disease. However, the risk for severe illness from COVID-19 is higher in people ages ≥50 years and those who are immunocompromised. Three COVID-19 vaccines are currently approved under a Biologics License Application or authorized under an Emergency Use Authorization (EUA) by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and recommended for primary vaccination by the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP): the two-dose mRNA-based Pfizer-BioNTech/Comirnaty and Moderna COVID-19 vaccines and the single-dose adenovirus vector-based Janssen (Johnson & Johnson) COVID-19 vaccine. On August 12, 2021, the FDA amended the EUAs for Pfizer-BioNTech (persons aged ≥12 years) and Moderna (persons aged ≥18 years) COVID-19 vaccines to authorize an additional dose for certain immunocompromised persons. Due to insufficient data, the EUA amendment for an additional dose did not apply to Janssen COVID-19 vaccine or to individuals who received Janssen COVID-19 vaccine as a primary series. Previous data on the use of additional doses of COVID-19 vaccine is linked here: EtR for Use of an Additional COVID-19 Vaccine Dose in Immunocompromised People | CDC. Additionally, during September-October, 2021, the FDA amended the COVID-19 vaccine EUAs to allow for booster doses of Pfizer-BioNTech, Moderna, or Janssen COVID-19 vaccines in persons who completed primary vaccination with these vaccines, as well as use of each of the available COVID-19 vaccines as a heterologous (or "mix and match") booster dose in eligible individuals following completion of primary vaccination with a different COVID-19 vaccine. Previous data on the use of booster doses of COVID-19 vaccine is linked here: EtR for Use of COVID-19 Vaccine Booster Doses | CDC. On March 29, 2022, the FDA amended the COVID-19 vaccine EUAs to authorize a second booster dose of either the Pfizer-BioNTech or the Moderna COVID-19 vaccines for individuals 50 years of age and older as well as certain immunocompromised individuals 12 years of age and older at least 4 months after receipt of a first booster dose of any authorized or approved COVID-19 vaccine. Following FDA's regulatory action on March 29, 2022, CDC updated its COVID-19 vaccination guidance to allow certain immunocompromised individuals and people over the age of 50 who received an initial booster dose at least 4 months ago to be eligible for another mRNA booster to increase their protection against severe disease from COVID-19. Separately, and in addition, based on newly published data, adults who received a primary vaccine and booster dose of Johnson & Johnson's COVID-19 vaccine at least 4 months ago may now receive a second booster dose using an mRNA COVID-19 vaccine. Additional background information supporting the ACIP recommendation on the use of additional or booster doses of COVID-19 vaccine can be found in the relevant publication of the recommendation referenced on the ACIP website.

Screening of compounds to identify novel epigenetic regulatory factors that affect innate immune memory in macrophages.

Trained immunity and tolerance are part of the innate immune memory that allow innate immune cells to differentially respond to a second encounter with stimuli by enhancing or suppressing responses. In trained immunity, treatment of macrophages with ß-glucan (BG) facilitates the production of proinflammatory cytokines upon lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation. For the tolerance response, LPS stimulation leads to suppressed inflammatory responses during subsequent LPS exposure. Epigenetic reprogramming plays crucial roles in both phenomena, which are tightly associated with metabolic flux. In this study, we performed a screening of an epigenetics compound library that affects trained immunity or LPS tolerance in macrophages using TNFα as a readout. Among the 181 compounds tested, one compound showed suppressive effects, while 2 compounds showed promoting effects on BG-trained TNFα production. In contrast, various inhibitors targeting Aurora kinase, histone methyltransferase, histone demethylase, histone deacetylase and DNA methyltransferase showed inhibitory activity against LPS tolerance. Several proteins previously unknown to be involved in innate immune memory, such as MGMT, Aurora kinase, LSD1 and PRMT5, were revealed. Protein network analysis revealed that the trained immunity targets are linked via Trp53, while LPS tolerance targets form three clusters of histone-modifying enzymes, cell division and base-excision repair. In trained immunity, the histone lysine methyltransferase SETD7 was identified, and its expression was increased during BG treatment. Level of the histone lysine demethylase, LSD1, increased during LPS priming and siRNA-mediated reduction resulted in increased expression of Il1b in LPS tolerance. Taken together, this screening approach confirmed the importance of epigenetic modifications in innate immune memory and provided potential novel targets for intervention.

Enhanced Bacteremia in Dextran Sulfate-Induced Colitis in Splenectomy Mice Correlates with Gut Dysbiosis and LPS Tolerance.

Because both endotoxemia and gut dysbiosis post-splenectomy might be associated with systemic infection, the susceptibility against infection was tested by dextran sulfate solution (DSS)-induced colitis and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) injection models in splenectomy mice with macrophage experiments. Here, splenectomy induced a gut barrier defect (FITC-dextran assay, endotoxemia, bacteria in mesenteric lymph nodes, and the loss of enterocyte tight junction) and gut dysbiosis (increased Proteobacteria by fecal microbiome analysis) without systemic inflammation (serum IL-6). In parallel, DSS induced more severe mucositis in splenectomy mice than sham-DSS mice, as indicated by mortality, stool consistency, gut barrier defect, serum cytokines, and blood bacterial burdens. The presence of green fluorescent-producing (GFP) E. coli in the spleen of sham-DSS mice after an oral gavage supported a crucial role of the spleen in the control of bacteria from gut translocation. Additionally, LPS administration in splenectomy mice induced lower serum cytokines (TNF-α and IL-6) than LPS-administered sham mice, perhaps due to LPS tolerance from pre-existing post-splenectomy endotoxemia. In macrophages, LPS tolerance (sequential LPS stimulation) demonstrated lower cell activities than the single LPS stimulation, as indicated by the reduction in supernatant cytokines, pro-inflammatory genes (iNOS and IL-1ß), cell energy status (extracellular flux analysis), and enzymes of the glycolysis pathway (proteomic analysis). In conclusion, a gut barrier defect after splenectomy was vulnerable to enterocyte injury (such as DSS), which caused severe bacteremia due to defects in microbial control (asplenia) and endotoxemia-induced LPS tolerance. Hence, gut dysbiosis and gut bacterial translocation in patients with a splenectomy might be associated with systemic infection, and gut-barrier monitoring or intestinal tight-junction strengthening may be useful.

Blockade of Cycloxygenase-2 ameliorates sepsis induced immune-suppression by regulating myeloid-derived suppressor cells.

BACKGROUND: Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) and cyclooxy-genase-2 (COX-2)/Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) axis are important contributors to sepsis-induced immune-suppression. The purpose of present study is to explore whether COX-2 inhibitor can improve immunological disorder after sepsis via regulating MDSCs. METHODS: A ''two-hit'' model reflecting clinical sepsis development was performed. Cecal ligation and puncture (CLP) and Legionella pneumophila infection were used as the first and the second hit, respectively. NS398, a selective COX-2 inhibitor, was utilized to treat septic mice. The motality, bacterial counts in the lung, systematic inflammatory reaction and CD4 + T cells response after sepsis were assessed, so as the frequency and function of MDSCs. In some experiments, the number of MDSCs was manipulated by adoptive transfer or neutralizing antibody before induction of secondary infection. RESULTS: Mice surviving CLP showed a marked expansion and activation of MDSCs in spleen, accompanied by suppressed proliferating capability, impaired secreting functionand increased apoptosis of CD4 + T cells. Majority of CLP survivors became succumbed to L. pneumophila invasion, associated with defective bacteria elimination ability. NS398 treatment was found to ameliorate these adverse outcomes significantly. CONCLUSION: MDSCs contribute greatly to the sepsis-induced immune dysfunction. Inhibiting COX-2 may become a promising therapy that targets MDSCs-induced immunosuppression.

Study on the mechanism of Yupingfeng powder in the treatment of immunosuppression based on UPLC⁃QTOF⁃MS, network pharmacology and molecular biology verification.

AIMS: The current study aims to investigate the effect of Yupingfeng (YPF) powder on immunosuppression, and explore the possible mechanisms. MAIN METHODS: Firstly, the monomer components of YPF powder were analyzed by UPLC-QTOF-MS combined with UNIFI automatic analysis platform, then the mechanism of YPF on immunosuppressive treatment was investigated using network pharmacological method, and finally the prediction was verified in a Candida albicans (Can)-induced immunosuppressive BALB/c mouse model. KEY FINDINGS: 98 monomer compounds in YPF were obtained. Through virtual analysis and screening on the oral utilization and drug likeness properties of the components, 47 effective components were got. 9 core targets obtained were enriched in IL-17 signaling pathway. In the mouse model, YPF could reduce the number of Can and alleviate Can-induced inflammation in the kidney effectively, upregulate Can-induced low proportion of CD4+/CD8+ of splenic lymphocytes, and increase Can-induced low activity of IL-17 pathway. SIGNIFICANCE: These results demonstrate that YPF could improve the immunity of Can-induced immunosuppression in BALB/c mice through upregulating the activity of IL-17 pathway.

Tolerance Induced by Antigen-Loaded PLG Nanoparticles Affects the Phenotype and Trafficking of Transgenic CD4+ and CD8+ T Cells.

We have shown that PLG nanoparticles loaded with peptide antigen can reduce disease in animal models of autoimmunity and in a phase 1/2a clinical trial in celiac patients. Clarifying the mechanisms by which antigen-loaded nanoparticles establish tolerance is key to further adapting them to clinical use. The mechanisms underlying tolerance induction include the expansion of antigen-specific CD4+ regulatory T cells and sequestration of autoreactive cells in the spleen. In this study, we employed nanoparticles loaded with two model peptides, GP33-41 (a CD8 T cell epitope derived from lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus) and OVA323-339 (a CD4 T cell epitope derived from ovalbumin), to modulate the CD8+ and CD4+ T cells from two transgenic mouse strains, P14 and DO11.10, respectively. Firstly, it was found that the injection of P14 mice with particles bearing the MHC I-restricted GP33-41 peptide resulted in the expansion of CD8+ T cells with a regulatory cell phenotype. This correlated with reduced CD4+ T cell viability in ex vivo co-cultures. Secondly, both nanoparticle types were able to sequester transgenic T cells in secondary lymphoid tissue. Flow cytometric analyses showed a reduction in the surface expression of chemokine receptors. Such an effect was more prominently observed in the CD4+ cells rather than the CD8+ cells.

B Cells in Primary Membranous Nephropathy: Escape from Immune Tolerance and Implications for Patient Management.

Membranous nephropathy (MN) is an important cause of nephrotic syndrome and chronic kidney disease (CKD) in adults. The pathogenic significance of B cells in MN is increasingly recognized, especially following the discovery of various autoantibodies that target specific podocytic antigens and the promising treatment responses seen with B cell depleting therapies. The presence of autoreactive B cells and autoantibodies that bind to antigens on podocyte surfaces are characteristic features of MN, and are the result of breaches in central and peripheral tolerance of B lymphocytes. These perturbations in B cell tolerance include altered B lymphocyte subsets, dysregulation of genes that govern immunoglobulin production, aberrant somatic hypermutation and co-stimulatory signalling, abnormal expression of B cell-related cytokines, and increased B cell infiltrates and organized tertiary lymphoid structures within the kidneys. An understanding of the role of B cell tolerance and homeostasis may have important implications for patient management in MN, as conventional immunosuppressive treatments and novel B cell-targeted therapies show distinct effects on proliferation, differentiation and reconstitution in different B cell subsets. Circulating B lymphocytes and related cytokines may serve as potential biomarkers for treatment selection, monitoring of therapeutic response and prediction of disease relapse. These recent advances in the understanding of B cell tolerance in MN have provided greater insight into its immunopathogenesis and potential novel strategies for disease monitoring and treatment.

Potential Implications of Citrulline and Quercetin on Gut Functioning of Monogastric Animals and Humans: A Comprehensive Review.

The importance of gut health in animal welfare and wellbeing is undisputable. The intestinal microbiota plays an essential role in the metabolic, nutritional, physiological, and immunological processes of animals. Therefore, the rapid development of dietary supplements to improve gut functions and homeostasis is imminent. Recent studies have uncovered the beneficial effects of dietary supplements on the immune response, microbiota, gut homeostasis, and intestinal health. The application of citrulline (a functional gut biomarker) and quercetin (a known potent flavonoid) to promote gut functions has gained considerable interest as both bioactive substances possess anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative, and immunomodulatory properties. Research has demonstrated that both citrulline and quercetin can mediate gut activities by combating disruptions to the intestinal integrity and alterations to the gut microbiota. In addition, citrulline and quercetin play crucial roles in maintaining intestinal immune tolerance and gut health. However, the synergistic benefits which these dietary supplements (citrulline and quercetin) may afford to simultaneously promote gut functions remain to be explored. Therefore, this review summarizes the modulatory effects of citrulline and quercetin on the intestinal integrity and gut microbiota, and further expounds on their potential synergistic roles to attenuate intestinal inflammation and promote gut health.

A Hypothetical Model Suggesting Some Possible Ways That the Progesterone Receptor May Be Involved in Cancer Proliferation.

Cancer and the fetal-placental semi-allograft share certain characteristics, e.g., rapid proliferation, the capacity to invade normal tissue, and, related to the presence of antigens foreign to the host, the need to evade immune surveillance. Many present-day methods to treat cancer use drugs that can block a key molecule that is important for one or more of these characteristics and thus reduce side effects. The ideal molecule would be one that is essential for both the survival of the fetus and malignant tumor, but not needed for normal cells. There is a potential suitable candidate, the progesterone induced blocking factor (PIBF). The parent 90 kilodalton (kDa) form seems to be required for cell-cycle regulation, required by both the fetal-placental unit and malignant tumors. The parent form may be converted to splice variants that help both the fetus and tumors escape immune surveillance, especially in the fetal and tumor microenvironment. Evidence suggests that membrane progesterone receptors are involved in PIBF production, and indeed there has been anecdotal evidence that progesterone receptor antagonists, e.g., mifepristone, can significantly improve longevity and quality of life, with few side effects.

The vulnerable versatility of Salmonella antibiotic persisters during infection.

Tolerance and persistence are superficially similar phenomena by which bacteria survive bactericidal antibiotics. It is assumed that the same physiology underlies survival of individual tolerant and persistent bacteria. However, by comparing tolerance and persistence during Salmonella Typhimurium infection, we reveal that these two phenomena are underpinned by different bacterial physiologies. Multidrug-tolerant mutant Salmonella enter a near-dormant state protected from immune-mediated genotoxic damages. However, the numerous tolerant cells, optimized for survival, lack the capabilities necessary to initiate infection relapse following antibiotic withdrawal. In contrast, persisters retain an active state. This leaves them vulnerable to accumulation of macrophage-induced dsDNA breaks but concurrently confers the versatility to initiate infection relapse if protected by RecA-mediated DNA repair. Accordingly, recurrent, invasive, non-typhoidal Salmonella clinical isolates display hallmarks of persistence rather than tolerance during antibiotic treatment. Our study highlights the complex trade-off that antibiotic-recalcitrant Salmonella balance to act as a reservoir for infection relapse.

The chemotherapeutic drug carboplatin affects macrophage responses to LPS and LPS tolerance via epigenetic modifications.

Following re-exposure to lipopolysaccharide (LPS), macrophages exhibit an immunosuppressive state known as LPS tolerance, which is characterized by repressed proinflammatory cytokine production. LPS-induced tolerance in macrophages is mediated in part by epigenetic changes. Carboplatin, an anticancer chemotherapeutic drug, exerts its effect by inhibiting DNA replication and transcription, as well as through epigenetic modifications. Through an unbiased screen, we found that carboplatin rescued TNF-α and IL-6 production in LPS-tolerant macrophages. Transcriptomic analysis and gene set enrichment analyses revealed that p53 was one of the most significantly upregulated hallmarks in both LPS-primed and LPS-tolerant macrophages in the presence of carboplatin, while E2F and G2/M were the most negatively regulated hallmarks. Heterochromatin protein 1 (HP1-α), which is associated with gene silencing, was significantly reduced in carboplatin-treated LPS-tolerant macrophages at the mRNA and protein levels. Dynamic changes in the mRNA level of genes encoding H3K9me3 methyltransferases, setdb2, kdm4d, and suv39h1 were induced in the presence of carboplatin in LPS-tolerant macrophages. Taken together, we provide evidence that carboplatin treatment interferes with proinflammatory cytokine production during the acute LPS response and LPS tolerance in macrophages, possibly via H3K9me3 modification.