A Comparative Evaluation of TRPS1 and GATA3 in adenoid cystic, secretory, and acinic cell carcinomas of the breast and salivary gland.

GATA3 is the most used marker to determine tumors' breast origin, but its diagnostic value in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is limited. The newly identified TRPS1 is highly sensitive and specific for breast carcinoma, especially TNBC. Here, we compared the utility of TRPS1 and GATA3 expression in a subset of salivary gland-type breast tumors (including adenoid cystic, acinic cell, and secretory carcinomas [AdCC, ACC, and SC, respectively]), and we compared TRPS1 and GATA3 expression of such tumors with head and neck (H&N) and AdCC of upper respiratory tumors. TRPS1 was strongly expressed in basaloid TNBC and AdCCs with solid components, including 100 % of mixed and solid breast AdCCs. However, TRPS1 was positive in only 50 % cribriform AdCCs. Expression patterns of TRPS1 in H&N and upper respiratory AdCC were similar. TRPS1 was positive in 30 % of H&N cribriform AdCCs but was strongly expressed in mixed AdCC (67 %) and solid AdCC (100 %). In the upper respiratory AdCCs, TRPS1 was positive in 58.4 % of cribriform AdCCs and positive in 100 % of AdCCs with solid components. On the contrary, GATA3 was negative in predominant AdCCs of the breast, H&N, and upper respiratory tract. These data show that GATA3 and TRPS1 expression varies AdCCs. In addition, TRPS1 and GATA3 expression patterns were similar SC and ACC of breast and H&N. Both markers were positive in SC and negative in ACC. Therefore, TRPS1 and GATA3 cannot be used to differentiate salivary gland-type carcinomas of breast origin from those of upper respiratory or H&N origin.

Inflammatory endotypes of adenoidal hypertrophy based on a cluster analysis of biomarkers.

OBJECTIVE: To identify adenoid inflammatory endotypes based on inflammatory markers, match endotypes to phenotypes, and predict endotypes. METHODS: This cross-sectional study included 72 children with adenoid hypertrophy. Thirteen inflammatory markers and total immunoglobulin E (TIgE) in adenoid tissue were analyzed using Luminex and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for performing cluster analysis. Correlation analysis was used to examine the characteristics of each cluster. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis was performed to screen for preoperative characteristic data with predictive value for adenoid inflammation endotype. RESULTS: The patients were divided into four clusters. Cluster 1 exhibited non-type 2 signatures with low inflammatory marker concentrations, except for the highest expression of Th1-related cytokines. Cluster 2 showed a non-type 2 endotype with the highest concentration of interleukin (IL)-17A and IL-22. Cluster 3 exhibited moderate type 2 inflammation, with the highest concentration of neutrophil factors. Cluster 4 demonstrated significant type 2 inflammation and moderate neutrophil levels. The proportions of AR and serum TIgE levels increased from clusters 1 to 4, and there was a gradual increase in the prevalence of chronic sinusitis from low to high neutrophilic inflammation. The area under the ROC curve for serum TIgE was higher than those for combined or other separate preoperative characteristics for predicting non-type 2 and type 2 inflammation in the adenoid tissue. CONCLUSIONS: The evaluation of cytokines in adenoid tissue revealed four endotypes. Serum TIgE level was an important indicator of the endotype of adenoid inflammation. Identification of adenoid inflammatory endotypes can facilitate targeted treatment decisions.

Novel Classification System of Adenoids Based on Appearance and Its Relationship with Drug Therapy.

INTRODUCTION: Adenoidectomy is a common procedure in children who have adenoid hypertrophy (AH), but anesthesia risks should be considered. We proposed a novel classification system for adenoids based on their appearance. Additionally, we explored whether the novel classification of adenoids correlates with the response to therapy and thus might be helpful for further treatment recommendations. METHODS: We used fiberoptic nasal endoscopy to determine the degree and appearance of AH. Obstructive Sleep Apnea Questionnaire (OSA-18) was used to assess the quality of life of children with AH. The adenoids were divided into three types: edematous type, common type, and fibrous type. In adenoid tissues, the eosinophils were counted. Immunohistochemistry and Western blot were done to determine the expression of CysLTR1, CysLTR2, CGR-α, and CGR-ß in different types of adenoids. RESULTS: 70.67% (106/150) of AH patients presented with allergic rhinitis (AR), and of them, 68% (72/106) of adenoids were the edematous type. The expressions of CGR-α, CGR-ß, and eosinophil count were higher in the edematous compared with the common and fibrous types. The expression of the leukotriene receptor was similar in all types. Upon montelukast combined with nasal glucocorticoid therapy, improvement of OSA-18 scores and AH grade was significantly compared to montelukast monotherapy for edematous type. There was not any statistically significant difference between the scores upon montelukast combined with nasal glucocorticoid and montelukast monotherapy for common and fibrous type. We observed a positive correlation between eosinophil count in the blood and in the adenoid tissue. CONCLUSION: AR was the risk factor for the development of edematous AH. All subtypes of AH responded to montelukast, while there was an additional effect of nasal glucocorticoid in the edematous type. A combination therapy of nasal glucocorticoid with leukotriene receptor antagonist can be recommended for AH patients with AR, patients with edematous adenoids, and/or patients with increased eosinophils in blood routine.

Adenoid ameloblastoma harbors beta-catenin mutations.

Adenoid ameloblastoma is a very rare benign epithelial odontogenic tumor characterized microscopically by epithelium resembling conventional ameloblastoma, with additional duct-like structures, epithelial whorls, and cribriform architecture. Dentinoid deposits, clusters of clear cells, and ghost-cell keratinization may also be present. These tumors do not harbor BRAF or KRAS mutations and their molecular basis appears distinct from conventional ameloblastoma but remains unknown. We assessed CTNNB1 (beta-catenin) exon 3 mutations in a cohort of 11 samples of adenoid ameloblastomas from 9 patients. Two of the 9 patients were female and 7 male and in 7/9 patients the tumors occurred in the maxilla. Tumors of 4 of these 9 patients harbored CTNNB1 mutations, specifically p.Ser33Cys, p.Gly34Arg, and p.Ser37Phe. Notably, for one patient 3 samples were analyzed including the primary tumour and two consecutive recurrences, and results were positive for the mutation in all three tumors. Therefore, 6/11 samples tested positive for the mutation. In the 6 mutation-positive samples, ghost cells were present in only 2/6, indicating beta-catenin mutations are not always revealed by ghost cell formation. Dentinoid matrix deposition was observed in 5/6 mutation-positive samples and clear cells in all 6 cases. None of the cases harbored either BRAF or KRAS mutations. Beta-catenin immunoexpression was assessed in the samples of 8 patients. Except for one wild-type case, all cases showed focal nuclear expression irrespective of the mutational status. Together with the absence of BRAF mutation, the detection of beta-catenin mutation in adenoid ameloblastomas supports its classification as a separate entity, and not as a subtype of ameloblastoma. The presence of this mutation may help in the diagnosis of challenging cases.

[Research advances on signaling pathways affecting sweat gland development and their involvement in the reconstitution of sweat adenoid cells in vitro].

The damage of sweat glands in patients with extensive deep burns results in the loss of thermoregulation, which seriously affects the quality of life of patients. At present, there are many researches on the repair of sweat gland function, but the mechanism of human sweat gland development has not been fully clarified. More and more studies have shown that the cascaded pathways of Wnt/ß-catenin, ecto- dysplasin A/ectodysplasin A receptor/nuclear factor-κB, sonic hedgehog, and forkhead box transcription factor jointly affect the development of sweat glands, and it has been reported that the cascaded signaling pathways can be used to achieve the reconstruction of sweat adenoid cells in vitro. This article reviews the signaling pathways that affect the development of sweat glands and their involvement in the reconstruction of sweat adenoid cells in vitro.

Basaloid squamous cell carcinoma of anal canal with adenoid cystic pattern and liver metastasis: A rare case report.

Anal malignancies are rare, and of these squamous cell carcinoma and basaloid squamous cell carcinoma are the most common types. Anal basaloid squamous carcinoma (BSC) can show a variety of patterns including unusual variants with cribriform areas resembling adenoid cystic carcinoma (ACC). BSC is reported more frequently in elderly females. Although the histopathology of BSC is characteristic, its cytomorphology is rarely described in the anorectal region. Due to overlapping morphological features, it is challenging to distinguish between ACC and BSC. Immunohistochemistry (IHC) is mandatory for this distinction and definite diagnosis, as it is a highly aggressive tumor with a tendency for distant metastasis. An interesting and rare case of BSC with ACC-pattern arising in the anal canal with liver metastasis in a middle-aged male is reported here. The aim is to highlight its cytological features, correlation with histology, IHC and its differential diagnoses.

Research advances on signaling pathways affecting sweat gland development and their involvement in the reconstitution of sweat adenoid cells in vitro / 中华烧伤杂志

The damage of sweat glands in patients with extensive deep burns results in the loss of thermoregulation, which seriously affects the quality of life of patients. At present, there are many researches on the repair of sweat gland function, but the mechanism of human sweat gland development has not been fully clarified. More and more studies have shown that the cascaded pathways of Wnt/β-catenin, ecto- dysplasin A/ectodysplasin A receptor/nuclear factor-κB, sonic hedgehog, and forkhead box transcription factor jointly affect the development of sweat glands, and it has been reported that the cascaded signaling pathways can be used to achieve the reconstruction of sweat adenoid cells in vitro. This article reviews the signaling pathways that affect the development of sweat glands and their involvement in the reconstruction of sweat adenoid cells in vitro.

AIM2 deficiency in B cells ameliorates systemic lupus erythematosus by regulating Blimp-1-Bcl-6 axis-mediated B-cell differentiation.

Absent in melanoma 2 (AIM2) has been reported to be a component of inflammasomes in innate immune cells. Surprisingly, AIM2 is expressed by B cells, and higher AIM2 expression is observed in the B cells from lupus patients. To date, the inflammasome-independent function of AIM2 in B cells remains unclear. Here, we report increased expression of AIM2 in human tonsil memory and germinal center (GC) B cells and in memory B cells and plasma cells from the circulation and skin lesions of lupus patients. Conditional knockout of AIM2 in B cells reduces the CD19+ B-cell frequency in lymph nodes and spleens, and dampens KLH-induced IgG1-antibody production. In a pristane-induced mouse model of lupus, AIM2 deficiency in B cells attenuates lupus symptoms and reduces the frequency of GC B cells, T follicular helper (Tfh) cells, plasmablast cells, and plasma cells. Furthermore, the loss of AIM2 in human B cells leads to the increased expression of Blimp-1 and reduces the expression of Bcl-6. However, the silencing of Blimp-1 and Bcl-6 has no significant effect on AIM2 expression, indicating that AIM2 might be the upstream regulator for Blimp-1 and Bcl-6. In addition, IL-10 is found to upregulate AIM2 expression via DNA demethylation. Together, our findings reveal that AIM2 is highly expressed in the B cells of lupus patients and promotes B-cell differentiation by modulating the Bcl-6-Blimp-1 axis, providing a novel target for SLE treatment.

IL-32 exacerbates adenoid hypertrophy via activating NLRP3-mediated cell pyroptosis, which promotes inflammation.

Adenoid hypertrophy (AH) is a common pediatric disease caused by inflammatory stimulation. The pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-32 has been reported to promote airway inflammation and also be involved in the pyroptosis pathway. However, whether IL-32 can contribute to AH by mediating pyroptosis remains to be elucidated. The present study aimed to investigate the role of IL-32 in AH and determine the potential underlying mechanisms. Adenoid tissues were collected from healthy children and children with AH, and the expression of IL-32, NACHT LRR and PYD domains-containing protein 3 (NLRP3) and IL-1ß in normal and hypertrophic tissues were measured. Human nasal epithelial cells (HNEpCs) were exposed to a series of IL-32 concentrations. HNEpCs with or without IL-32 silencing were stimulated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS), and cell proliferation, cell apoptosis, gasdermin D (GSDMD) activation, production of inflammatory cytokines and the expression levels of proteins related to the potential mechanisms were evaluated by Cell Counting Kit-8, flow cytometry, immunofluorescence staining, ELISA and western blot assays, respectively. The results showed that IL-32, NLRP3 and IL-1ß exhibited higher expression in adenoid tissues with AH compared with normal tissues. In HNEpC cells, treatment with IL-32 (2 and 10 ng/ml) promoted cell proliferation, while 50 ng/ml IL-32 inhibited cell proliferation at 12, 24 and 48 h post-treatment. IL-32 (2, 10 and 50 ng/ml) also resulted in differing degrees of apoptosis, GSDMD activation, release of IL-1ß, IL-6 and TNF-α, and increased protein expression levels of NLRP3, cleaved-caspase-1, activated GSDMD, nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-containing protein (NOD) 1/2 and Toll-like receptor (TLR)4 in a concentration-dependent manner. In addition, compared with the LPS group, IL-32 knockdown significantly inhibited LPS-induced enhancement of cell proliferation, cell apoptosis, GSDMD activation and production of inflammatory cytokines, and reversed the increased protein expression of NLRP3, cleaved-caspase-1, activated GSDMD, NOD1/2 and TLR4. In conclusion, IL-32 may play a role in the progression of AH via promoting inflammation, and the potential mechanism may involve the activation of NLRP3-mediated pyroptosis.

IL-17C expression and its correlation with pediatric adenoids: a preliminary study.

Objective: Interleukin-17 (IL-17) C is a cytokine expressed by epithelial cells in response to bacterial stimulation. In contrast to other members of the IL-17 family of cytokines, IL-17C is upregulated early during infection, maintains integrity of the epithelial layer barrier, and mediates the innate immune response. We investigated the expression profile of IL-17C in pediatric adenoids. Methods: Pediatric adenoid tissues and lavage fluids were collected from a total of 38 subjects. The Limulus amebocyte lysate test and real-time PCR using Staphylococcus aureus primers were performed to evaluate bacterial contents in adenoids. Expression of IL-17RE in adenoids was analyzed using real-time polymerase chain reaction and western blot. The expression of IL-17C was evaluated by western blot and immunohistochemistry and compared between allergic rhinitis (AR) and control subjects. The levels of Hsp27, Hsp70, and IL-17C in adenoid lavage fluids were evaluated by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, and the correlation between these molecules was statistically analyzed. Results: The pediatric adenoids were found to be exposed to bacteria and had a normal flora comprising both gram-negative and -positive bacteria. IL-17RE, an IL-17C specific receptor, was highly expressed in the epithelium of adenoids. IL-17C was expressed in all evaluated adenoid tissue samples, irrespective of the allergic status of the patient. IL-17C secretion was detected in half of the adenoid lavage fluid samples and was associated with Hsp70 level. Conclusion: Our findings indicate the possible role of pediatric adenoids in innate immunity modulation via an innate immunity-associated cytokine.

Children From the Age of Three Show a Developmental Switch in T-Cell Differentiation.

Every sixth child suffers from hypertrophy of the adenoid, a secondary lymphoid organ, at least once in childhood. Little is known about the impact of pathogen-provocation vs. developmental impact on T-cell responses after 1 year of age. Therefore, developmental and infection-driven influences on the formation of T-cell-compartments and -multifunctionality in adenoids were analyzed taking into account patient's history of age and inflammatory processes. Here, we show that in adenoids of 102 infants and children similar frequencies of naïve, effector, and memory T-cells were accumulated, whereby history of suffering from subsequent infection symptoms resulted in lower frequencies of CD4+ and CD8+ T-cells co-expressing several cytokines. While patients suffering from sole nasal obstruction had balanced Th1- and Th17-compartments, Th1 dominated in patients with concomitant upper airway infections. In addition, analysis of cytokine co-expressing CD4+ and CD8+ T-cells showed that children at the age of three or older differed significantly from those being 1- or 2-years old, implicating a developmental switch in T-cell differentiation at that age. Yet, dissecting age and infectious history of the patients revealed that while CD8+ T-cell differentiation seems to be triggered by development, CD4+ T-cell functionality is partly impaired by infections. However, this functionality recovers by the age of 3 years. Thus, 3 years of age seems to be a critical period in an infant's life to develop robust T-cell compartments of higher quality. These findings identify important areas for future research and distinguish an age period in early childhood when to consider adjusting the choice of treatment of infections.

Vascular endothelial growth factor and transforming growth factor ß in hypertrophic adenoids in children suffering from otitis media with effusion.

OBJECTIVES: The study objective was to assess the levels of VEGF-A and TGF-ß cytokines in the children with adenoid hypertrophy concomitant with exudative otitis media (OME) and in children with adenoid hypertrophy (HA) alone. METHODS: The study material consisted of hypertrophic adenoids removed during adenoidectomy from 39 children (20 girls and 19 boys), aged 2-7 years suffering from OME. The reference group included 41 children (19 girls and 22 boys), aged from 3 to 9 years with adenoid hypertrophy. The levels of VEGF-A and TGF-ß were determined in supernatants obtained from phytohemagglutinin-stimulated cell cultures of the adenoids using a commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kit. RESULTS: The median VEGF-A and mean TGF-ß concentrations in the study group were significantly higher than those in the reference group (503 pg/mL versus 201 pg/mL, P < 0.001 and 224 pg/mL versus 132 pg/mL, P < 0.001, respectively). ROC analysis revealed that the area under the curve (AUC) for VEGF-A was 0.952 with diagnostic sensitivity and specificity of 95%, whereas for TGF-ß it was 0.902 with 60% sensitivity and the same specificity as for VEGF-A. There was no significant difference between the AUC for VEGF-A and TGF-ß (P = 0.573). CONCLUSIONS: The changes in the levels of VEGF-A and TGF-ß may indicate bacterial pathogen as one of the causes of exudative otitis media in children. Determination of VEGF-A and TGF-ß could be used as additional and objective tests to confirm the clinical diagnosis.

Down-regulation of anti-inflammatory TIPE2 may aggravate adenoidal hypertrophy in children.

Adenoidal hypertrophy (AH) is a common disorder in the pediatric population, with common symptoms including mouth breathing, nasal congestion, hyponasal speech, snoring and obstructive sleep apnea. Although the pathogenesis of AH has not been fully elucidated, recent studies have indicated that immune responses may play an important role in AH. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α)-induced protein-8 like-2 (TIPE2) is a newly identified protein that negatively regulates the activation of inflammatory pathways. Here, we investigated the effect of TIPE2 in AH in children. We observed that the levels of TNF-α and interleukin-6 were greater in the adenoid tissue of AH children than in healthy control subjects (P < 0.01), and this increase was positively correlated with the severity of AH. The level of TIPE2 expression was decreased compared with control and was negatively correlated with AH. TIPE2 overexpression in primary human monocytes (isolated from adenoid tissue of children with AH) inhibited the activation of nuclear factor-κB and the expression of TNF-α and interleukin-6. These results suggest that overexpression of TIPE2 may attenuate AH through inactivation of the nuclear factor-κB signaling pathway.

Selected cytokines in hypertrophic adenoids in children suffering from otitis media with effusion.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of the current study was to assess the levels of MMP-8, MMP-9 and TIMP-1 in the group of children with adenoids who suffered from exudative otitis media. METHODS: The study included 20 patients (10 females and 10 males) with adenoid hypertrophy coexisting with otitis media with effusion. The reference group included 24 patients (10 females and 14 males) with adenoid hypertrophy without otitis media. The levels of MMP-8, MMP-9 and TIMP-1 were determined in supernatants obtained from phytohemagglutinin (PHA)-stimulated cell cultures of the tonsils, using commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kits (R@D Systems, USA). RESULTS: The median MMP-8, MMP-9 and TIMP-1 concentrations (220.8 ng/mL, 311.1 ng/mL, 53.5 ng/mL, respectively) in the study group were significantly higher (p = 0.000, p = 0.000, p = 0.048, respectively) than those in the reference group (93.5 ng/mL, 112.5 ng/mL, 36.95 ng/mL, respectively). ROC analysis revealed that the area under a curve (AUC) for both metalloproteinases MMP-8 and MMP-9 was 1 with a diagnostic sensitivity of 100% and diagnostic specificity of 95.8%, as compared to 0.690 for TIMP-1. Significant differences were found between the AUC for MMP-8 and TIMP-1 and MMP-9 and TIMP-1 (p < 0.001 for both comparisons). CONCLUSIONS: The changes in the concentrations of MMP-8, MMP-9 and TIMP-1 may indicate an increased remodeling of the extracellular matrix in children with adenoid hypertrophy and otitis media with effusion. The findings can have clinical as well as diagnostic utility. Determination of MMP-8 and MMP-9 may help qualify a child for adenoidectomy and differentiate pediatric patients affected by adenoid hypertrophy with and without otitis media.

Differential IL-17A response to S. pneumoniae in adenoid tissue of children with sleep disordered breathing and otitis media with effusion.

Streptococcus pneumonia, one of the major colonizers in nasopharyngeal adenoids, has been the predominant pathogen causing acute otitis media (AOM) in children. Recent evidence suggests an association between IL-17A-mediated immune response and the clearance of pneumococcal colonization in nasopharyngeal adenoids. Here, we evaluated the expressions of IL-17A and associated genes in hypertrophic adenoid tissues of children with sleep-disordered breathing (SDB) and otitis media with effusion (OME) and their association with pneumococcal carriage. Sixty-six pediatric patients with adenoid hypertrophy were enrolled. During adenoidectomy, nasopharyngeal swab and adenoid tissues were used to determine pneumococcal carriage and IL-17A expression. Our results revealed significantly higher levels of IL-17A and IL-17A:IL-10 mRNA in the SDB patients positive for nasopharyngeal pneumococcal carriage than those negative. However, these differences were not significant in the OME group. These results suggested, in OME patients, prolonged or chronic pneumococcal carriage may occur because of insufficient IL-17A-mediated mucosal clearance, and could further lead to AOM and OME development.

The differences in the expression of fractalkine and its receptor in conditions of tonsillar hypertrophy and chronic tonsillitis.

OBJECTIVE: Fractalkine, member of chemokine family, is involved in many inflammatory processes in the human body. The aim of this study is to compare expression levels of fractalkine ligand and its receptor in chronic tonsillitis and hypertrophic tonsil samples. METHODS: The study was conducted at Baskent University Departments of Otorhinolaryngology and Medical Genetics. It is designed as a prospective, non-randomized, controlled clinical study. Total 97 samples, obtained from adenotonsillectomy due to chronic tonsillitis or tonsillar hypertrophy, were participated in the study. Fractalkine and its receptor expression levels were determined and comparison was made between the tissue groups. c.839C>T (T280M) polymorphism of fractalkine receptor was analyzed, then relationship between polymorphism and the expression level of fractalkine receptor was investigated. RESULTS: Fractalkine receptor expression was significantly higher in the hypertrophic tonsil group than chronic tonsillitis group (p<0.05). CONCLUSION: Fractalkine, member of chemokine family, and its receptor may play role in preventing chronic-recurrent tonsillitis.

IL-17A expression in the adenoid tissue from children with sleep disordered breathing and its association with pneumococcal carriage.

Tonsil and adenoid-tissue hypertrophy (AH) is the most common cause of pediatric sleep-disordered breathing (SDB), with AH possibly initiated by repeated exposure to infectious agents or allergens. Here, we evaluated IL-17A activity in adenoid tissue from children with SDB and its association with AH and pneumococcal carriage. Thirty-five children (aged 3-12 years) with SDB and receiving adenoidectomy and tonsillectomy were enrolled. During surgery, nasopharyngeal carriage was determined by bacterial culture and multiplex PCR via nasopharyngeal swab, and adenoid samples were collected. IL-17A and associated cytokine expression was evaluated by real-time PCR and western blotting. The mRNA analysis showed that IL-17A level, IL-17A:IL-10 ratio, and RAR-related orphan receptor-γt:forkhead box P3 ratio were significantly higher in adenoid tissues with AH, as were IL-17A level and IL-17A:IL-10 ratio in adenoid tissues with pneumococcal carriage. Additionally, pneumococcal carriage was more common in nasopharyngeal adenoids from patients without AH than those with AH. IL-17A was upregulated in adenoid tissues from patients with AH and with pneumococcal carriage. These results suggested that pneumococcal carriage initiates an IL-17A-mediated immune response in nasopharyngeal adenoids, which might be associated with AH in patients with SDB.

Substrate accumulation and extracellular matrix remodelling promote persistent upper airway disease in mucopolysaccharidosis patients on enzyme replacement therapy.

INTRODUCTION: Mucopolysaccharide diseases are a group of lysosomal storage disorders caused by deficiencies of hydrolase enzymes, leading to pathological glycosaminoglycan accumulation. A number of mucopolysaccharidosis (MPS) types are characterised by severe airway disease, the aetiology of which is poorly understood. There is ongoing evidence of significant clinical disease in the long-term despite disease modifying therapeutic strategies, including enzyme-replacement therapy (ERT). To provide a better understanding of this aspect of disease, we have characterised extracellular matrix (ECM) and inflammatory alterations in adenotonsillar tissue samples from 8 MPS patients. METHODS: Adenotonsillar samples from MPS I, IVA and VI ERT treated patients and from a single enzyme naïve MPS IIIA individual were compared to non-affected control samples using quantitative immunohistochemistry, qPCR and biochemical analysis. RESULTS: Significantly increased lysosomal compartment size and total sulphated glycosaminoglycan (p = 0.0007, 0.02) were identified in patient samples despite ERT. Heparan sulphate glycosaminoglycan was significantly elevated in MPS I and IIIA (p = 0.002), confirming incomplete reversal of disease. Collagen IV and laminin α-5 (p = 0.002, 0.0004) staining demonstrated increased ECM deposition within the reticular and capillary network of MPS samples. No significant change in the expression of the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1α, IL-6 or TNF-α was seen compared to control. CONCLUSION: This study suggests a role for ECM remodelling contributing to the obstructive phenotype of airway disease in MPS. Current therapeutic strategies with ERT fail to normalise these pathological alterations within adenotonsillar samples. Our findings lend novel insight into the pathological cascade of events, with primarily structural rather than inflammatory changes contributing to the continuing phenotype seen in patients despite current therapeutic regimes.

Differential chemokine expression patterns in tonsillar disease.

Expression profiles of CXC- and CC-chemokines in various forms of tonsillar disease were studied to evaluate whether certain chemokines play a predominant role in a specific subset of tonsillar disease. Total RNA was isolated from 89 biopsies (21 hyperplastic palatine tonsils, 25 adenoids, 16 chronic inflammatory palatine tonsils and 27 chronic inflammatory palatine tonsils with histological prove of acute inflammation), reverse transcribed and subjected to PCR amplifying IL-8, Gro-alpha, eotaxin-1, eotaxin-2, MCP-3, MCP-4 and RANTES. 2% agarose gel electrophoresis revealed a predominance of IL-8 in the chronic inflammatory palatine tonsil group compared to tonsillar hyperplasia. Furthermore, eotaxin-2 was strongly overexpressed in adenoid samples compared to chronic inflammatory specimens. Our data suggest that the majority of diseases related to adenoid formation are mediated via an eotaxin-2 expression, whereas chronic inflammatory tonsillitis is associated with IL-8 upregulation. These data imply that adenoids are related to a Th-2, and chronic inflammatory tonsillitis to a Th-1 based immune response.