[18F]FDG PET signal is driven by astroglial glutamate transport.

Contributions of glial cells to neuroenergetics have been the focus of extensive debate. Here we provide positron emission tomography evidence that activation of astrocytic glutamate transport via the excitatory amino acid transporter GLT-1 triggers widespread but graded glucose uptake in the rodent brain. Our results highlight the need for a reevaluation of the interpretation of [18F]FDG positron emission tomography data, whereby astrocytes would be recognized as contributing to the [18F]FDG signal.

Glutamate transporters and presynaptic metabotropic glutamate receptors protect neocortical Cajal-Retzius cells against over-excitation.

Cajal-Retzius (CR) cells, early generated neurons in the marginal zone of developing neocortex, are reported to be highly vulnerable to excitotoxic damage. Because extracellular glutamate concentration in the central nervous system is mainly controlled by glutamate transporters (EAATs), we studied the effects of EAAT blockade on CR cells. DL: -TBOA, a specific EAAT antagonist, induced NMDA receptor-dependent bursting discharges in layer 2/3 pyramidal neurons, indicating that EAATs operate in the uptake mode and their blockade leads to elevation of extracellular glutamate concentration. In CR cells, however, DL: -TBOA failed to change either the membrane resistance or holding current, and moreover, it reduced the frequency of spontaneous GABAergic postsynaptic currents. DL: -TBOA decreased the mean amplitude and increased paired-pulse ratio of evoked GABAergic postsynaptic currents, indicating the presynaptic locus of its action. Indeed, LY379268, a specific agonist of group II metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluR-II), mimicked the DL: -TBOA-mediated effects, and LY341495, an unspecific mGluR antagonist, eliminated the DL: -TBOA-induced effects. As dihydrokainic acid, a specific EAAT2 blocker, failed to affect evoked GABAergic postsynaptic currents, whereas TFB-TBOA, a selective blocker of EAAT1 and EAAT2, produced effects similar to that of DL: -TBOA, extracellular glutamate concentration in the marginal zone is mainly controlled by EAAT1 (GLAST). Thus, even though CR cells are highly vulnerable to excitotoxic damage, a number of mechanisms serve to protect them against excessive extracellular glutamate concentration including a lack of functional glutamatergic synapses, Mg(2+) blockade of NMDA receptors, and presynaptic mGluRs that inhibit transmission at GABAergic synapses.

Molecular pharmacology of glutamate transporters, EAATs and VGLUTs.

L-Glutamate serves as a major excitatory neurotransmitter in the mammalian central nervous system (CNS) and is stored in synaptic vesicles by an uptake system that is dependent on the proton electrochemical gradient (VGLUTs). Following its exocytotic release, glutamate activates fast-acting, excitatory ionotropic receptors and slower-acting metabotropic receptors to mediate neurotransmission. Na+-dependent glutamate transporters (EAATs) located on the plasma membrane of neurons and glial cells rapidly terminate the action of glutamate and maintain its extracellular concentration below excitotoxic levels. Thus far, five Na+-dependent glutamate transporters (EAATs 1-5) and three vesicular glutamate transporters (VGLUTs 1-3) have been identified. Examination of EAATs and VGLUTs in brain preparations and by heterologous expression of the various cloned subtypes shows these two transporter families differ in many of their functional properties including substrate specificity and ion requirements. Alterations in the function and/or expression of these carriers have been implicated in a range of psychiatric and neurological disorders. EAATs have been implicated in cerebral stroke, epilepsy, Alzheimer's disease, HIV-associated dementia, Huntington's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and malignant glioma, while VGLUTs have been implicated in schizophrenia. To examine the physiological role of glutamate transporters in more detail, several classes of transportable and non-transportable inhibitors have been developed, many of which are derivatives of the natural amino acids, aspartate and glutamate. This review summarizes the development of these indispensable pharmacological tools, which have been critical to our understanding of normal and abnormal synaptic transmission.