["Hypnotics" in the metropolis: Africans in the Colonial Hospital of Lisbon during the early twentieth century]. / "Hipnóticos" na metrópole: africanos no Hospital Colonial de Lisboa nas primeiras décadas do século XX.

At the start of the twentieth century, some Portuguese physicians traveled to Africa to study sleeping sickness (African trypanosomiasis). One was Ayres Kopke, a member of the first medical mission to Portuguese West Africa and professor at the School of Tropical Medicine. After returning to Lisbon, Kopke continued his research, which included observation of patients brought to the metropolis. Starting in 1903, health departments in the colonies were responsible for sending patients with certain exotic diseases to the Colonial Hospital of Lisbon. Based on documents from this hospital including photographs of patients (who at that time were called "hypnotics"), this article discusses the importance of human experiments in Lisbon for advances in tropical medicine during the colonial period.

No início do século XX, alguns médicos portugueses foram à África estudar a chamada doença do sono. Entre eles estava Ayres Kopke, membro da primeira missão médica à África Ocidental Portuguesa. De regresso a Lisboa, o professor da Escola de Medicina Tropical continuou suas pesquisas, inclusive por meio da observação de doentes trazidos para a metrópole. Desde 1903, as repartições de saúde nas colônias estavam incumbidas de enviar doentes com determinadas patologias exóticas para o Hospital Colonial de Lisboa. Com base em documentos desse hospital, incluindo fotografias dos doentes, então chamados de hipnóticos, o artigo aborda a importância das experiências com humanos na metrópole para o avanço da medicina tropical durante o colonialismo.

"Hipnóticos" na metrópole: africanos no Hospital Colonial de Lisboa nas primeiras décadas do século XX / "Hypnotics" in the metropolis: Africans in the Colonial Hospital of Lisbon during the early twentieth century

Resumo No início do século XX, alguns médicos portugueses foram à África estudar a chamada doença do sono. Entre eles estava Ayres Kopke, membro da primeira missão médica à África Ocidental Portuguesa. De regresso a Lisboa, o professor da Escola de Medicina Tropical continuou suas pesquisas, inclusive por meio da observação de doentes trazidos para a metrópole. Desde 1903, as repartições de saúde nas colônias estavam incumbidas de enviar doentes com determinadas patologias exóticas para o Hospital Colonial de Lisboa. Com base em documentos desse hospital, incluindo fotografias dos doentes, então chamados de hipnóticos, o artigo aborda a importância das experiências com humanos na metrópole para o avanço da medicina tropical durante o colonialismo.

Abstract At the start of the twentieth century, some Portuguese physicians traveled to Africa to study sleeping sickness (African trypanosomiasis). One was Ayres Kopke, a member of the first medical mission to Portuguese West Africa and professor at the School of Tropical Medicine. After returning to Lisbon, Kopke continued his research, which included observation of patients brought to the metropolis. Starting in 1903, health departments in the colonies were responsible for sending patients with certain exotic diseases to the Colonial Hospital of Lisbon. Based on documents from this hospital including photographs of patients (who at that time were called "hypnotics"), this article discusses the importance of human experiments in Lisbon for advances in tropical medicine during the colonial period.

Case of Nigeria-Acquired Human African Trypanosomiasis in United Kingdom, 2016.

Human African trypanosomiasis has not been reported in Nigeria since 2012. Nevertheless, limitations of current surveillance programs mean that undetected infections may persist. We report a recent case of stage 2 trypanosomiasis caused by Trypanosoma brucei gambiense acquired in Nigeria and imported into the United Kingdom.

The remarkable Dr Robertson.

Muriel Robertson (1883-1973) was a pioneering protozoologist who made a staggering number of important contributions to the fields of parasitology, bacteriology and immunology during her career, which spanned nearly 60 years. These contributions were all the more remarkable given the scientific and social times in which she worked. While Muriel is perhaps best known for her work on the life cycle and transmission of the African trypanosome, Trypanosoma brucei, which she carried out in Uganda at the height of a major Sleeping Sickness epidemic, her work on the Clostridia during the First and Second World Wars made significant contributions to the understanding of anaerobes and to the development of anti-toxoid vaccines, and her work on the immunology of Trichomonas foetus infections in cattle, carried out in collaboration with the veterinarian W. R. Kerr, resulted in changes in farming practices that very quickly eradicated trichomoniasis from cattle herds in Northern Ireland. The significance of her work was recognized with the award of Fellow of the Royal Society in 1947 and an Honorary Doctorate of Law from the University of Glasgow, where she had earlier studied, in 1948.

Environments and trypanosomiasis risks for early herders in the later Holocene of the Lake Victoria basin, Kenya.

Specialized pastoralism developed ∼3 kya among Pastoral Neolithic Elmenteitan herders in eastern Africa. During this time, a mosaic of hunters and herders using diverse economic strategies flourished in southern Kenya. It has been argued that the risk for trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness), carried by tsetse flies in bushy environments, had a significant influence on pastoral diversification and migration out of eastern Africa toward southern Africa ∼2 kya. Elmenteitan levels at Gogo Falls (ca. 1.9-1.6 kya) preserve a unique faunal record, including wild mammalian herbivores, domestic cattle and caprines, fish, and birds. It has been suggested that a bushy/woodland habitat that harbored tsetse fly constrained production of domestic herds and resulted in subsistence diversification. Stable isotope analysis of herbivore tooth enamel (n = 86) from this site reveals, instead, extensive C4 grazing by both domesticates and the majority of wild herbivores. Integrated with other ecological proxies (pollen and leaf wax biomarkers), these data imply an abundance of C4 grasses in the Lake Victoria basin at this time, and thus little risk for tsetse-related barriers to specialized pastoralism. These data provide empirical evidence for the existence of a grassy corridor through which small groups of herders could have passed to reach southern Africa.

25 years of African trypanosome research: From description to molecular dissection and new drug discovery.

The Molecular Parasitology conference was first held at the Marine Biological laboratory, Woods Hole, USA 25 years ago. Since that first meeting, the conference has evolved and expanded but has remained the showcase for the latest research developments in molecular parasitology. In this perspective, I reflect on the scientific discoveries focussed on African trypanosomes (Trypanosoma brucei spp.) that have occurred since the inaugural MPM meeting and discuss the current and future status of research on these parasites.

Public health and tropical modernity: the combat against sleeping sickness in Portuguese Guinea, 1945-1974.

Until the establishment of the "Commission for the study of and combat against sleeping sickness" (Missão de estudo e combate à doença do sono) in 1945, underfunded and understaffed health services had not been a priority for the colonial administration in Portuguese Guinea. The Commission not only implemented endemic disease control in the territory under the auspices of metropolitan institutions, but also provided preventive public healthcare to the local population. Its relative success in reducing the negative impact of Human African Trypanosomiasis turned the colony into an apparent model of tropical modernity. In the process, the local evolution of the disease was marginalized, despite the tacit but contested recognition by some health professionals of the role of popular healthcare.

Public health and tropical modernity: the combat against sleeping sickness in Portuguese Guinea, 1945-1974 / Saúde pública e modernidade tropical: o combate à doença do sono na Guiné Portuguesa, 1945-1974

Until the establishment of the “Commission for the study of and combat against sleeping sickness” (Missão de estudo e combate à doença do sono) in 1945, underfunded and understaffed health services had not been a priority for the colonial administration in Portuguese Guinea. The Commission not only implemented endemic disease control in the territory under the auspices of metropolitan institutions, but also provided preventive public healthcare to the local population. Its relative success in reducing the negative impact of Human African Trypanosomiasis turned the colony into an apparent model of tropical modernity. In the process, the local evolution of the disease was marginalized, despite the tacit but contested recognition by some health professionals of the role of popular healthcare.

Os serviços de saúde que sofreram de uma crónica falta de recursos humanos e materiais nunca foram uma prioridade para a administração colonial na Guiné Portuguesa até a criação da Missão de Estudo e Combate à Doença do Sono em 1945. Além de introduzir o controlo de doenças endémicas sob a tutela de instituições metropolitanas, a Missão também providenciou cuidados preventivos de saúde pública para as populações locais. O sucesso relativo da redução do impacto nocivo da tripanossomíase africana parece ter transformado a colónia num modelo de modernidade tropical. Porém, as trajetórias locais da doença foram marginalizadas, apesar do reconhecimento tácito mas contestado por profissionais de saúde do papel de cuidados populares de saúde.

Bactéria ou parasita? a controvérsia sobre a etiologia da doença do sono e a participação portuguesa, 1898-1904 / Bacteria or parasite? the controversy over the etiology of sleeping sickness and the Portuguese participation, 1898-1904

A etiologia da doença do sono era desconhecida até o início do século XX. Essa doença tipicamente africana em breve se tornaria o principal obstáculo à colonização europeia. O envio de missões científicas às colônias para seu estudo in loco tornou-se inevitável. Portugal enviou a primeira missão de estudo, a Angola, em 1901, e a Royal Society of London apoiou duas missões britânicas de estudo da doença, em Entebe. O resultado dessas investigações estabeleceu uma controvérsia, na qual Portugal esteve envolvido de 1898 a 1904, no circuito nacional e internacional, objeto de análise deste artigo.

The etiology of sleeping sickness was unknown until the early twentieth century. This African disease soon became the main obstacle to European colonization. Sending scientific missions to the colonies to monitor its progression in loco thus became inevitable. Portugal sent the first research mission to Angola in 1901, and the Royal Society of London sponsored two British missions to study the disease in Entebbe (1902 and 1903). Their results led to a controversy in which Portugal was involved from 1898 to 1904, on the national and international circuits, analysed in this article.

[History of an epidemiological route between Ivory Coast and Burkina Faso: the case of the Koudougou sleeping sickness foci]. / Histoire d'un itinéraire épidémiologique entre le Burkina Faso et la Côte d'Ivoire : le cas des foyers de maladie du sommeil de Koudougou.

In the first half of the XXth century, while Upper-Volta (now Burkina Faso) was suffering a terrible epidemic of sleeping sickness, the French colonial administration encouraged the movement of people from Upper-Volta to Ivory Coast to meet their demands for labour. This led to the establishment of Mossi villages, such as those of Koudougou, in the Ivorian forest with populations originating from areas of Upper-Volta that were not only densely populated but also severely affected by sleeping sickness. Since 2000, most cases of sleeping sickness in the Koudougou district of Burkina Faso have been in people originally from Ivory Coast. Who are they? Where did they settle in Burkina Faso? Where do they come from in Ivory Coast? After having retraced the epidemiological history of Koudougou villages in Burkina Faso and Ivory Coast, the history of ten cases of sleeping sickness detected passively at Koudougou hospital since 2000 were analysed. All cases originated from the forest area of Ivory Coast. Understanding the spread of sleeping sickness between Burkina Faso and Ivory Coast will assist in the identification of areas of disease risk.

Gustavo Pittaluga y la expedición para el estudio de la enfermedad del sueño en los territorios españoles del golfo de Guinea (1909) / Gustavo Pittaluga and the expedition to study sleeping sickness in the Spanish territories of the Gulf of Guinea (1909

Introducción. La enfermedad del sueño, o tripanosomiasis africana, produjo a principios del siglo x x una gran mortalidad. Por ello, las potencias coloniales organizaron diversas expediciones científicas, que favorecieron el conocimiento de la enfermedad. Objetivo. Estudiar la primera investigación realizada en España sobre tripanosomiasis africana y en el campo de la medicina tropical, mediante una expedición científica organizada por Cajal a los territorios españoles del golfo de Guinea en el año 1909. Desarrollo. Dirigió la expedición el parasitólogo Gustavo Pittaluga, que sería una de las figuras más importantes en la medicina y la salud pública en España durante el primer tercio del siglo x x. Le acompañaron Luis Rodríguez Illera y Jorge Ramón Fañanás, hijo de Cajal. Recorrieron durante cuatro meses los territorios de Guinea, recogiendo información clínica y epidemiológica sobre la enfermedad del sueño y otras enfermedades, examinando a numerosos pacientes, a los que se les realizaba análisis hematológicos y parasitológicos. En la descripción clínica de los 14 pacientes con tripanosomiasis, encontramos la primera descripción de un síndrome de opsoclono-mioclono. En un caso se realizó estudio patológico cerebral. Se hicieron también importantes estudios entomológicos y estudios experimentales sobre la tripanosomiasis. Conclusiones. Esta expedición se enmarca dentro del impulso de renovación de la ciencia española, que Cajal encabezó a través de la Junta de Ampliación de Estudios recién creada. En las investigaciones realizadas en Guinea, Pittaluga mostró un alto nivel científico, tanto en clínica e higiene como en parasitología y entomología, equiparable a otros estudios europeos coetáneos (AU)

Introduction. Sleeping sickness, or human African trypanosomiasis, caused an important mortality at the beginnings of the twentieth century. For this reason the European colonial countries organized several scientific expeditions which contributed decisively to the knowledge of the disease. Aim. To study the first investigation performed in Spain on African trypanosomiasis and in the field of tropical medicine, which was accomplished by a scientific expedition to the Spanish territories in the Gulf of Guinea organized by Cajal in 1909. Development. The parasitologist Gustavo Pittaluga, who became one of the most outstanding figures in Spanish medicine and public health during the first third of the twentieth century, commanded the expedition. Other members were Luis Rodríguez Illera and Jorge Ramón Fañanás, Cajal’s son. Along four months they travelled through the Spanish territories of Guinea, collecting clinical and epidemiological information on sleeping sickness and other diseases, and examining a great number of patients, who had hematological and parasitological studies performed. In the clinical description of the 14 cases of trypanosomiasis studied we have found the first description of the opsoclonus-myoclonus syndrome. A pathological study of the brain was performed in one case. In addition, important entomological studies and experimental investigations on trypanosomiasis were also performed. Conclusions. This expedition took place in the context of the impulse of renovation of Spanish science headed by Cajal through the Junta de Ampliación de Estudios, recently created. In the investigations performed in Guinea, Pittaluga demonstrated a high scientific standard in the fields of clinical medicine, hygiene, parasitology and entomology, comparable with other contemporary European studies (AU)

[Gustavo Pittaluga and the expedition to study sleeping sickness in the Spanish territories of the Gulf of Guinea (1909)]. / Gustavo Pittaluga y la expedición para el estudio de la enfermedad del sueño en los territorios españoles del golfo de Guinea (1909).

INTRODUCTION: Sleeping sickness, or human African trypanosomiasis, caused an important mortality at the beginnings of the twentieth century. For this reason the European colonial countries organized several scientific expeditions which contributed decisively to the knowledge of the disease. AIM: To study the first investigation performed in Spain on African trypanosomiasis and in the field of tropical medicine, which was accomplished by a scientific expedition to the Spanish territories in the Gulf of Guinea organized by Cajal in 1909. DEVELOPMENT: The parasitologist Gustavo Pittaluga, who became one of the most outstanding figures in Spanish medicine and public health during the first third of the twentieth century, commanded the expedition. Other members were Luis Rodriguez Illera and Jorge Ramon Fananas, Cajal's son. Along four months they travelled through the Spanish territories of Guinea, collecting clinical and epidemiological information on sleeping sickness and other diseases, and examining a great number of patients, who had hematological and parasitological studies performed. In the clinical description of the 14 cases of trypanosomiasis studied we have found the first description of the opsoclonus-myoclonus syndrome. A pathological study of the brain was performed in one case. In addition, important entomological studies and experimental investigations on trypanosomiasis were also performed. CONCLUSIONS: This expedition took place in the context of the impulse of renovation of Spanish science headed by Cajal through the Junta de Ampliacion de Estudios, recently created. In the investigations performed in Guinea, Pittaluga demonstrated a high scientific standard in the fields of clinical medicine, hygiene, parasitology and entomology, comparable with other contemporary European studies.

[Aldo Castellani and the expeditions of the Royal Society to the black sleep's country]. / Aldo Castellani y las expediciones de la Royal Society al país del sueño negro.

At the beginning the investigation on infectious diseases was plenty of adventures in exotic countries. The efforts of the English investigators, headed by Patrick Manson, gave birth to the "tropical" medicine and "tropical" diseases, like the sleeping sickness, which was sweeping the country north to the Victoria Lake in 1901. The Royal Society of London sent two Commissions in search of the etiological agent. Aldo Castellani was decisive for the failure of the first - Low, Castellani, Christy,1902 - because even he saw Trypanosoma in samples of some patients, he did not appreciate his discovery; and decisive also for the success of the second -Bruce, Nabarro, Greig, 1903 - when he and Bruce recognized this Trypanosoma as the etiological agent. Following these expeditions, Low developed a brilliant career in England, Christy a life of investigation mixed up with adventures through Asia and Africa and Castellani a long life of lights and shadows in many lands.

Aldo Castellani y las expediciones de la Royal Society al país del sueño negro / Aldo Castellani and the expeditions of the Royal Society to the black sleep's country

At the beginning the investigation on infectious diseases was plenty of adventures in exotic countries. The efforts of the English investigators, headed by Patrick Manson, gave birth to the "tropical" medicine and "tropical" diseases, like the sleeping sickness, which was sweeping the country north to the Victoria Lake in 1901. The Royal Society of London sent two Commissions in search of the etiological agent. Aldo Castellani was decisive for the failure of the first - Low, Castellani, Christy,1902 - because even he saw Trypanosoma in samples of some patients, he did not appreciate his discovery; and decisive also for the success of the second -Bruce, Nabarro, Greig, 1903 - when he and Bruce recognized this Trypanosoma as the etiological agent. Following these expeditions, Low developed a brilliant career in England, Christy a life of investigation mixed up with adventures through Asia and Africa and Castellani a long life of lights and shadows in many lands.

En un comienzo la investigación sobre enfermedades infecciosas estuvo llena de aventuras en países exóticos. Impulsada por los investigadores ingleses, encabezados por Patrick Manson, nacieron la medicina y las enfermedades "tropicales", entre las cuales se encontraba la enfermedad del sueño, que a comienzos del siglo XX hacía estragos al norte del lago Victoria. La Real Sociedad de Londres envió dos Comisiones a Uganda para determinar el agente etiológico. Aldo Castellani fue decisivo para el fracaso de la primera, que incluía también a Low y Christy, en 1902, pues aunque vio tripanosomas en LCR de enfermos, no les otorgó valor y prefirió postular un diplococo como agente causal; y decisivo también para el éxito de la segunda, de Bruce, Nabarro y Greig, en 1903, al concordar con Bruce en que el tripanosoma era realmente el causante de la enfermedad. Después de estas expediciones, Low desarrolló una brillante carrera en Inglaterra, Christy una vida que combinaba investigación con aventura en Asia y África, y Castellani una larga vida de éxitos, oscurecida por sus ideas políticas, que lo ligaban a Mussolini.