The role of the bacterial microbiota on reproductive and pregnancy health.

Recent assessments have examined the composition of bacterial communities influencing reproductive, pregnancy and infant health. The Microbiome Project has made great strides in sequencing the microbiome and identifying the vast communities of microorganisms that inhabit our bodies and much work continues to examine the individual contribution of bacteria on health and disease to inform future therapies. This review explores the current literature outlining the contribution of important bacteria on reproductive health among sexually active men and women, outlines gaps in current research to determine causal and interventional relationships, and suggests future research initiatives. Novel treatments options to reduce adverse outcomes must recognize the heterogeneity of the bacteria within the microbiome and adequately assess long-term benefits in reducing disease burden and re-establishing a healthy Lactobacillus-dominant state. Recognizing other reservoirs outside of the lower genital track and within sexual partners as well as genetic and individual moderators may be most important for long-term cure and reduction of disease. It will be important to develop useful screening tools and comprehensively examine novel therapeutic options to promote the long-term reduction of high-risk bacteria and the re-establishment of healthy bacterial levels to considerably improve outcomes among pregnant women and sexually active men and women.

Intraoperative ultrasound-based planning can effectively replace postoperative CT-based planning for high-dose-rate brachytherapy for prostate cancer.

PURPOSE: Ultrasound (US)-based planning for high-dose-rate brachytherapy allows prostate patients to be implanted, imaged, planned, and treated without changing position. This is advantageous with respect to accuracy and efficiency of treatment but is only valuable if plan quality relative to CT is maintained. This study evaluates any dosimetric impact of changing from CT- to US-based planning. METHODS AND MATERIALS: Thirty patients each were randomly selected from CT-planned and US-planned cohorts. All received single fraction high-dose-rate brachytherapy (15 Gy) followed by 37.5 Gy in 15 fractions external beam radiation therapy. Prostate V90, V100, V150, V200, D90, and the dose homogeneity index were compared. For the rectum, Dmax, D0.5cc, D1cc, V10, V50, and V80 were examined. For the urethra, only Dmax and D10 were considered. RESULTS: US plans had smaller 200% hot spots, although the dose homogeneity index for both was 0.7 ± 0.1. On average, plans using either modality satisfied planning goals. Although several parameters were significantly different between the two modalities (p < 0.05), the absolute differences were small. Of greatest, clinical relevance was the difference in frequency with which upper dose goals were exceeded. The prostate V200 goal was exceeded in 53% of CT-planned cases, but only 20% of those planned with US. The urethral D10 goal was never exceeded using US but was exceeded in 13% of CT cases. CONCLUSIONS: US planning results in plans that, clinically, are dosimetrically equivalent to CT-based planning. Upper dosimetric goals are, however, exceeded less often with US than with CT.

An estimate of the proportion of symptomatic gonococcal, chlamydial and non-gonococcal non-chlamydial urethritis attributable to oral sex among men who have sex with men: a case-control study.

BACKGROUND: Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) of the pharynx are common among men who have sex with men (MSM); the degree to which these infections are transmitted through oral sex is unknown. METHODS: We conducted a case-control study of MSM attending Public Health-Seattle & King County STD Clinic between 2001 and 2013 to estimate the proportion of symptomatic urethritis cases attributable to oral sex using two methods. First, we categorised men into the following mutually exclusive behavioural categories based on their self-reported sexual history in the previous 60 days: (1) only received oral sex (IOS); (2) 100% condom usage with insertive anal sex plus oral sex (PIAI); (3) inconsistent condom usage with anal sex (UIAI); and (4) no sex. We then determined the proportion of cases in which men reported the oropharynx as their only urethral exposure (IOS and PIAI). Second, we calculated the population attributable risk per cent (PAR%) associated with oral sex using Mantel-Haenszel OR estimates. RESULTS: Based on our behavioural categorisation method, men reported the oropharynx as their only urethral exposure in the past 60 days in 27.5% of gonococcal urethritis, 31.4% of chlamydial urethritis and 35.9% non-gonococcal, non-chlamydial urethritis (NGNCU) cases. The PAR%s for symptomatic gonococcal urethritis, chlamydial urethritis and NGNCU attributed to oropharyngeal exposure were 33.8%, 2.7% and 27.1%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The pharynx is an important source of gonococcal transmission, and may be important in the transmission of chlamydia and other, unidentified pathogens that cause urethritis. Efforts to increase pharyngeal gonorrhoea screening among MSM could diminish STI transmission.

Infecciones de transmisión sexual en el varón: actitud práctica diagnóstico-terapéutica / STDs in men: diagnostic-therapeutic practical attitude

Las infecciones de transmisión sexual (ITS) son un grupo de enfermedades que afectan a la población que mantiene actividad sexual. Su distribución es muy amplia y afecta a ambos géneros. Para las uretritis por clamidia, ureaplasma y gonococo se utilizan cada vez más las pruebas de ampliación genómica como el test de reacción en cadena de la polimerasa (PCR). La balanitis por gardnerella y candida se diagnostican con cultivo de secreción y se tratan con terapia médica. Para el diagnóstico de la sifilis siguen en vigor las pruebas (reagínicas) como VDRL y las RPR y las treponémicas (no reagínicas) como FTA y TPHA. El tratamiento de todas ellas es antibiótico e incluye a las parejas. El herpes simple (VHS) se diagnostica clínicamente. La serología confirma el diagnóstico. El tratamiento con antivirales mejora el pronóstico. El virus del papiloma humano (VPH) se trata con eliminación química o física de las lesiones. El molusco contagioso se extirpa mecánicamente. En este trabajo se revisa el diagnóstico y el tratamiento práctico de las principales ITS que afectan al género masculino (AU)

Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) are a group of diseases affecting population that keeps sexual activity. Their distribution is very wide and affects both sexes. For urethritis chlamydia, ureaplasma and gonococcus genomic tests enlargement as test chain reaction (PCR) are used increasingly. The gardnerela and candida balanitis are diagnosed with secretion culture and treated with medical therapy. For the diagnosis of syphilis remain in reaginic and no reaginic tests). Treatment of these is antibiotic and includes couples. Herpes simplex virus (HSV) is diagnosed clinically. Serology confirms the diagnosis. Antiviral treatment improves prognosis. The Human Papilloma Virus (HPV) is treated with chemical or physical removal of the lesions. Molluscum contagiosum is removed mechanically. In this paper practical diagnosis and treatment of major ITS affecting male is reviewed (AU)

Chlamydia public health programs and the epidemiology of pelvic inflammatory disease and ectopic pregnancy.

BACKGROUND: Many countries have witnessed a disturbing increase in cases of Chlamydia trachomatis infection despite enhanced control programs. Since the goal of Chlamydia control is to prevent reproductive complications such as pelvic inflammatory disease and ectopic pregnancy, an understanding of recent trends in these conditions is needed to fully evaluate the effect of control efforts. METHODS: We analyzed 2 provincial, comprehensive health services administrative databases (encompassing hospitalizations and all physician-delivered services) for pelvic inflammatory disease and ectopic pregnancy trends from 1992 through 2009 in women of reproductive age in British Columbia, Canada. Trends were compared to provincial Chlamydia surveillance data by time-series analysis, using the cross-correlation function method and Granger causality testing. RESULTS: Chlamydia cases substantially increased from 1992 through 2009. Inpatient, outpatient, and total diagnoses of pelvic inflammatory disease and ectopic pregnancy declined from 1992 through 2003. After 2003, pelvic inflammatory disease rates continued to fall, while ectopic pregnancy rates significantly increased. The male Chlamydia urethritis rate increased from 39.4 to 173.6 cases/100,000 from 1996 to 2009. CONCLUSIONS: In the context of increasing Chlamydia infection rates, the reproductive complications of Chlamydia infection in women are declining overall. A recent increase in rates of ectopic pregnancies is cause for concern.

Urethritis/cervicitis pathogen prevalence and associated risk factors among asymptomatic HIV-infected patients in South Africa.

BACKGROUND: To determine sexually transmitted infection (STI) prevalence, and patient characteristics associated with detection of urethritis/cervicitis pathogens, among HIV-infected individuals offered voluntary STI screening at a South African HIV treatment center. METHODS: Individuals, asymptomatic for genital discharge, were screened for Neisseria gonorrhoeae (NG), Chlamydia trachomatis, Trichomonas vaginalis (TV), Mycoplasma genitalium (MG) infections (real-time polymerase chain reaction assay), for syphilis and herpes simplex type 2 (serologically), and for bacterial vaginosis and Candida (microscopy, women only). Patients' most recent CD4 and viral load results were recorded. Demographic, clinical, and behavioral data were collected by nurse-administered questionnaire. RESULTS: Compared with men (n = 551), women (n = 558) were younger (mean age, 35.0 vs. 37.9 years; P < 0.001), reported more STIs in the past year (65.5% vs. 56.5%; P = 0.002), had more urethritis/cervicitis pathogens detected (21.3% vs.16.4%, P = 0.035), and were less aware of their partner's HIV status (53.1% vs. 62.3%; P = 0.007). The overall prevalence of individual urethritis/cervicitis pathogens was TV (7.6%), MG (6.1%), NG (5.4%), and C. trachomatis (2.1%). Multivariate analysis highlighted 4 significant factors associated with the detection of specific urethritis/cervicitis pathogens, namely female gender (TV, adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 2.53, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.47-4.37), having a regular sexual partner in the past 3 months (NG, aOR 2.26, 95% CI: 1.01-5.08), suboptimal condom use with regular partners (TV, aOR 2.07, 95% CI: 1.25-3.42), and a history of genital warts in the past year (NG, 2.25, 95% CI: 1.26-4.03). CONCLUSIONS: Asymptomatic urethritis/cervicitis pathogens were highly prevalent in this population. Few urethritis/cervicitis pathogen-associated patient characteristics were identified, emphasizing the need for affordable STI diagnostics to screen HIV-infected patients.

The effect of medical male circumcision on urogenital Mycoplasma genitalium among men in Kisumu, Kenya.

BACKGROUND: We determined the prevalence of urethral Mycoplasma genitalium (MG) infection and whether infection was associated with circumcision status among men enrolled in the randomized trial of medical male circumcision to prevent HIV acquisition in Kisumu, Kenya. METHODS: MG and Trichomonas vaginalis were detected in first void urine by APTIMA transcription-mediated amplification assay. first void urine and urethral swabs were assessed for Neisseria gonorrhoeae (NG) and Chlamydia trachomatis (CT) by polymerase chain reaction assay. Herpes simplex virus type 2 antibodies were detected by IgG ELISA. Multivariable logistic regression identified factors associated with MG infection. RESULTS: Specimens were collected between July and September 2010, and 52 (9.9%; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 7.3%-12.4%) MG infections were detected among 526 men. N. gonorrhoeae and T. vaginalis were not associated with MG. CT coinfection was 5.8% in MG-infected men, and 0.8% among MG-uninfected men (P = 0.02). MG infection was predominantly asymptomatic (98%). The prevalence of MG was 13.4% in uncircumcised men versus 8.2% in circumcised men (P = 0.06). Being circumcised nearly halved the odds of MG (adjusted odds ratio [aQR] = 0.54; 95% CI: 0.29-0.99), adjusted for other variables significant at the P < 0.05 level: herpes simplex virus type 2 infection (aOR = 2.05; 95% CI: 1.05-4.00), CT infection (aOR = 2.69; 95% CI: 1.44-5.02), and washing the penis ≤1 hour after sex (aOR = 0.47; 95% CI: 0.24-0.95). CONCLUSIONS: MG infection was reduced among men who were circumcised, adding to the benefits of male circumcision in preventing several sexually transmitted infections.

Is Accelerated Partner Therapy (APT) a cost-effective alternative to routine patient referral partner notification in the UK? Preliminary cost-consequence analysis of an exploratory trial.

OBJECTIVES: To undertake a cost-consequence analysis to assess two new models of partner notification (PN), known as Accelerated Partner Therapy (APT Hotline and APT Pharmacy), as compared with routine patient referral PN, for sex partners of people with chlamydia, gonorrhoea and non-gonococcal urethritis. METHODS: Comparison of costs and outcomes alongside an exploratory trial involving two genitourinary medicine clinics and six community pharmacies. Index patients selected the PN method (APT Hotline, APT Pharmacy or routine PN) for their partners. Clinics and pharmacies recorded cost and resource use data including duration of consultation and uptake of treatment pack. Cost data were collected prospectively for two out of three interventions, and data were synthesised and compared in terms of effectiveness and costs. RESULTS: Routine PN had the lowest average cost per partner treated (approximately £46) compared with either APT Hotline (approximately £54) or APT Pharmacy (approximately £53) strategies. The cost-consequence analysis revealed that APT strategies were more costly but also more effective at treating partners compared to routine PN. CONCLUSION: The hotline strategy costs more than both the alternative PN strategies. If we accept that strategies which identify and treat partners the fastest are likely to be the most effective in reducing reinfection and onward transmission, then APT Hotline appears an effective PN strategy by treating the highest number of partners in the shortest duration. Whether the additional benefit is worth the additional cost cannot be determined in this preliminary analysis. These data will be useful for informing development of future randomised controlled trials of APT.

Can we improve partner notification rates through expedited partner therapy in the UK? Findings from an exploratory trial of Accelerated Partner Therapy (APT).

OBJECTIVES: To develop two new models of expedited partner therapy for the UK, and evaluate them for feasibility, acceptability and preliminary outcome estimates to inform the design of a randomised controlled trial (RCT). METHODS: Two models of expedited partner therapy (APTHotline and APTPharmacy), known as 'Accelerated Partner Therapy' (APT) were developed. A non-randomised comparative study was conducted of the two APT models and routine partner notification (PN), in which the index patient chose the PN option for his/her partner(s) in two contrasting clinics. RESULTS: The proportion of contactable partners treated when routine PN was chosen was 42/117 (36%) and was significantly higher if either APT option was chosen: APTHotline 80/135 (59%), p=0.003; APTPharmacy 29/44 (66%) p=0.001. However, partner treatment was often achieved through other routes. Although 40-60% of partners in APT groups returned urine samples for sexually transmitted infection (STI) testing, almost none accessed HIV and syphilis testing. APT options appear to facilitate faster treatment of sex partners than routine PN. Preferences and recruitment rates varied between sites, related to staff satisfaction with existing routine PN; approach to consent; and possibly, characteristics of local populations. CONCLUSIONS: Both methods of APT were feasible and acceptable to many patients and led to higher rates of partner treatment than routine PN. Preferences and recruitment rates varied greatly between settings, suggesting that organisational and cultural factors may have an important impact on the feasibility of an RCT and on outcomes. Mindful of these factors, it is proposed that APT should now be evaluated in a cluster RCT.

Combined hormonal contraception may be protective against Neisseria gonorrhoeae infection.

BACKGROUND: The role of hormonal contraception on acquisition of gonorrhea has not been well-characterized, as the transmission dynamics of Neisseria gonorrhoeae are poorly understood. The purpose of this study is to determine the influence of hormonal contraception on gonococcal infection in women exposed to males with gonococcal urethritis. METHODS: Females aged 15 to 35 years reporting sexual contact to a male partner diagnosed with N. gonorrhoeae were enrolled. Demographic and sexual histories, physical findings, and laboratory tests were collected. Women testing positive and negative for cervical N. gonorrhoeae were compared using chi and Fisher exact tests, with multivariable logistic regression performed on those factors independently associated with gonococcal infection on univariate analysis. RESULTS: N. gonorrhoeae infection occurred in 68 of 107 (64%) women. Women using combined hormonal contraception were significantly less likely than nonusers to test positive for N. gonorrhoeae (32% vs. 76%; prevalence ratio: 0.42; 95% confidence interval: 0.22, 0.78; P = 0.006). Gonorrhea was also less common in depomedroxyprogesterone acetate users. A new sexual partner was also associated with testing positive for gonorrhea (35% vs. 13%; prevalence ratio: 1.47; 95% confidence interval: 1.13, 1.90; P = 0.004). CONCLUSIONS: Women using combined hormonal contraceptives or depomedroxyprogesterone acetate were less likely to test positive for N. gonorrhoeae after sexual exposure compared with nonusers. Our data suggest that, in addition to contraceptive benefits, modern hormonal contraception may have a protective effect on the acquisition of N. gonorrhoeae.

Does patient-delivered partner treatment improve disclosure for treatable sexually transmitted diseases?

The objective of this research was to determine the factors associated with disclosure of three treatable sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). Data were obtained from two intervention trials to determine the ideal means of partner referral. Men diagnosed with urethritis and women diagnosed with trichomoniasis at public clinics in New Orleans, Louisiana were randomly assigned to partner referral (PR), booklet-enhanced partner referral (BEPR), or patient-delivered partner treatment (PDPT). Participants were asked about sex partners at baseline, then whether they disclosed to them at follow-up. The male trial was conducted from December 2001 to March 2004 and the female trial from December 2001 to August 2004. Data on men and women were analyzed separately. Nine hundred seventy-seven men and 463 women-reporting information on 1991 and 521 sex partners-were respectively enrolled in each trial. Disclosure occurred to 57.8% and 87.3% of their partners, respectively. Most men (68.3%) reported having two or more partners and disclosure was more likely to occur in: those who reported only one sex partner (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.54 [1.10, 2.16]); those in steady relationships (OR [95% CI]: 1.37 [1.08,1.74]); and those assigned PDPT [OR [95% CI]: 2.71 [1.93,3.82]). Most women reported having only one partner (86.8%) and disclosure was more likely to occur in steady relationships (OR [95% CI]: 2.65 [1.24,5.66]), and when sex was reinitiated with partners during the follow-up period (OR [95% CI]: 3.30 [1.54,7.09]). The provision of PDPT was associated with increased STD disclosure among men but not among women. Both men and women were less likely to disclose to casual partners. Women had high rates of disclosure irrespective of intervention arm.

[Precautions regarding prevent acute urethritis caused by Neisseria meningitidis in Japan].

In Japan, Neisseria meningitidis is not sufficiently recognized as the primary causative bacteria of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) as the number of reported cases is small. Here, we summarize reports from 3 medical institutions, present clinical courses for each case, as well recommending precautions to prevent infection with this bacterium. Fourteen cases of N. meningitidis urethritis (MU) were admitted between April 2001 and June 2006. All patients were male, consulted a doctor after experiencing subjective symptoms, such as micturition pain and pus discharge, and were diagnosed as having urethritis using isolation culture methods. In 8 of the 14 cases, history of sexual contact in the preclinical stage was confirmed, and contact was with a commercial sex worker (CSW) in 6 of these cases. Many of these patients recalled oral contact. All strains indicated susceptibility to many drugs, and there were no problems with treatment. With regard to serotype, there were 10 cases of type Y, 1 case of type B, and 3 cases that were not classifiable or unidentified. In addition, among the 9 strains that were subjected to genotype identification, 7 strains were ST-23. The recent increase in availability of nucleic acid amplification methods has facilitated simultaneous detection of Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Chlamydia trachomatis. However, we fear that MU will become latent. For screening of urethritis, Gram staining and culture of urethral material must be performed to detect this disease. The relationship of the detected strain and its role in the pathogenesis of meningitis are uncertain, but its serotype and genotype are common in cases of meningitis. Thus, precautions are required to prevent spread of this bacterium.

Chlamydial and gonococcal infection in men without polymorphonuclear leukocytes on gram stain: implications for diagnostic approach and management.

BACKGROUND: Gram stain is used to detect urethral inflammation, suggestive of infection, in men and guide therapeutic decisions. In the absence of signs, symptoms, or polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs) on urethral Gram stain, treatment and sometimes testing is deferred. GOAL: Determine the proportion of men with chlamydia or gonorrhea diagnosed by nucleic acid amplification testing (NAAT) or culture who lack Gram stain evidence of inflammation and compare their clinical characteristics to men with inflammation. METHODS: Records from 2629 men presenting for routine sexually transmitted disease care with urethral PMN count and NAAT data were retrospectively analyzed. A subpopulation tested by NAAT and culture was analyzed. Men receiving antibiotics within the prior month or those reporting a sexual partner with trichomoniasis were excluded. RESULTS: Among 2266 eligible men, 353 (16%) had chlamydia and 462 (20%) had gonorrhea. Among chlamydia-infected men, PMNs per oil-immersion field (oif) on Gram stain were > or =5 in 291 (82%), 1 to 4 in 20 (6%), and none in 42 (12%). In men with gonorrhea, PMNs/oif were > or =5 in 433 (94%), 1 to 4 in 6 (1%), and none in 23 (5%). Urethral symptoms, discharge, and/or > or =5 PMNs/oif were absent in 47 (13%) and 22 (5%) of chlamydial and gonococcal infections, respectively (including no PMNs/oif and 1-4 PMNs/oif). None of these 47 chlamydial-infected men and only 4 of 22 men with gonorrhea received therapy at the time of initial examination. CONCLUSIONS: Twelve percent of chlamydial and 5% of gonococcal infections had no Gram stain evidence of urethral inflammation. Absence of symptoms and discharge is not uncommon in chlamydial infection detected by NAAT, and without testing, many infections will go untreated, furthering the possibility of complications or partner transmission.

Patient-delivered partner treatment for male urethritis: a randomized, controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Traditional partner referral for sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) is ineffective at assuring that partners are treated. Alternative methods are needed. We sought to determine whether patient-delivered partner treatment (PDPT) is better than 2 different methods of partner referral in providing antibiotic treatment to sex partners of men with urethritis and in reducing recurrence of Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae. METHODS: Men who received a diagnosis of urethritis at a public STD clinic in New Orleans, Louisiana, during the period of December 2001 through March 2004 were randomly assigned according to the month of treatment for either standard partner referral (PR), booklet-enhanced partner referral (BEPR), or PDPT. At baseline and after 1 month, men were asked to provide information about each partner and were tested for C. trachomatis and N. gonorrhoeae. RESULTS: Most enrolled index men (n = 977) were > 24 years of age (51.6%) and African American (95%) and had > or = 2 partners (68.3%). They reported information on 1991 partners, and 78.8% were reinterviewed 4-8 weeks later. Men in the PDPT arm were more likely than men in the BEPR and PR arms to report having seen their partners, having talked to their partners about the infection, having given the intervention to their partners, and having been told by their partners that the antibiotic treatment had been taken (55.8%, 45.6%, and 35.0%, respectively; P < .001). Of men who were reinterviewed, 37.5% agreed to follow-up testing for N. gonorrhoeae and C. trachomatis infection. Those tested were similar to those not tested with regard to the study variables measured. Among those tested, men in the PDPT and BEPR arms were less likely than those in the PR arm to test positive for C. trachomatis and/or N. gonorrhoeae (23.0%, 14.3%, and 42.7%, respectively; P < .001). CONCLUSION: Among heterosexual men with urethritis, PDPT was better than standard partner referral for treatment of partners and prevention of recurrence of C. trachomatis or N. gonorrhoeae infection.

[Use of lubricants in urology. Indications and results]. / Der Einsatz von Gleitmitteln in der Urologie. Indikationen und Ergebnisse.

Lubricants are used for catheterization and/or endoscopic maneuvers. "The lubricant" should guarantee sufficient lubrification of the urinary tract, good visualization during endoscopy, and excellent local anesthesia. Additionally, asepsis or reliable control of the local bacterial flora of the urethra should be ensured. Modern lubricants fulfil these recommendations; in addition, they provide therapeutic opportunities for local therapy, for instance, of non-gonococcal urethritis. The latest results show that there are a few lubricants with antimicrobiotic influence on MRSA (methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus), which is of great importance because of the steady increase in MRSA-dependent infections.

[Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection presenting as gonorrhea]. / Pseudomonas-aeruginosa-Infektion unter dem Bild einer Gonorrhö.

A 68 year old man presented with urethritis and a purulent discharge, carrying the tentative diagnosis of gonorrhea. He had already been treated with multiple antibiotics. Microbiological investigation revealed Pseudomonas aeruginosa, a relatively frequent Gram-negative bacteria in hospitals, which can cause several nosocomial diseases such as pneumonia, wound infections and urogenital infections. Therapy can be difficult because of frequent antibiotic resistance. Guided by sensitivity studies, the patient was successfully treated with gyrase inhibitors. Pseudomonas aeruginosa-induced urogenital infections in ambulatory patients are extremely rare and usually not associated with a gonorrhea-like discharge.

Comparison of first void urine and urogenital swab specimens for detection of Mycoplasma genitalium and Chlamydia trachomatis by polymerase chain reaction in patients attending a sexually transmitted disease clinic.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to compare urogenital swab specimens and first void urine (FVU) specimens from male and female patients at a sexually transmitted disease clinic for the detection of Mycoplasma genitalium and Chlamydia trachomatis infections using in-house, inhibitor-controlled polymerase chain reaction (PCR). STUDY DESIGN: Urethral swabs and FVU were collected from 1856 men and 753 women who also had a cervical swab collected. A positive diagnosis of infection was made if any 1 of the specimens tested positive and were confirmed in a second PCR assay targeting independent genes. RESULTS: M. genitalium DNA and C. trachomatis DNA were detected in 126 (6.8%) and 246 (13.3%) of the male sample sets and in 51 (6.8%) and 73 (9.7%) of the female specimen sets, respectively. Using our in-house PCR and sample preparation methods, FVU was found to be the most sensitive diagnostic specimen for both pathogens, but for optimal sensitivity, it should be supplemented with a cervical specimen in women. In a small subset of female FVUs, storage at -20 degrees C led to false-negative M. genitalium PCR results in 27% of specimens found positive when a sample preparation was performed before freezing. The age-specific prevalence of M. genitalium in men was almost constant between 18 and 45 years of age in contrast to C. trachomatis infections, which were more common in younger men. CONCLUSION: Urine appeared to be a better diagnostic specimen than the urethral swab for M. genitalium and C. trachomatis detection by PCR in this cohort of sexually transmitted disease clinic attendees but should be supplemented with a cervical specimen in women.