The history of polio vaccination with "Sabin's OPV" 60 years after its introduction in Italy: an unforgivable "delay".

In the spring of 1964, polio vaccination with the oral vaccine developed by Albert Sabin began in Italy. Polio was feared in the world and in Italy. Thus, between 1957 and the beginning of 1958, Italian children began receiving the "Salk vaccine", though the results were not particularly convincing. In July 1960, the international scientific community was able to verify the data from the mass testing of the Sabin vaccine. It became clear that the OPV, could prevent the virus from multiplying, thereby providing greater protection and determining the eradication of the disease. In 1960 over 70 million people in the USSR alone had already received the oral vaccine and mass vaccination in the USA would start in March 1961. However, in Italy there was no similar initiative; only later the new vaccine was accepted but was not made compulsory at the beginning. As a result of the commission's report, registration of the "Polioral" vaccine, was authorized in September 1962 but the sale of the vaccine was not authorized until November 1963. At the beginning of 1964, the production of "Polioral" started and the product was marketed and on the 1 st of March 1964, anti-polio vaccination with the "Sabin anti-polio vaccine" also began in Italy. This manuscript focuses on a crucial issue about a historical delay for public health and it points out as the preparation and diffusion of the Sabin polio vaccine demonstrates that decisions regarding health treatments, and specifically vaccination campaigns, must be based exclusively on the results of clinical studies and on independent evaluation by the scientific community. This process ensures trust in vaccines, adequate protection of public health andcitizens' well-being.

The WetNet: What the Oral Polio Vaccine Hypothesis Exposes about Globalized Interspecies Fluid Bonds.

The author analyzes the aftermath of Edward Hooper's suggestion that the trial of an oral polio vaccine (OPV) in the Belgian colonies of Africa engendered the pandemic form of the AIDS virus, HIV-1. In response to Hooper's book, The River (1999), the Royal Society in London held a conference to debate the origins of HIV. Examination of the quick dismissal of the OPV theory opens a space for legitimately challenging the widely held belief that the vaccine contamination question was convincingly resolved. This article interrogates the relationship between historiography and the making of scientific facts and history, suggesting that historians have been too credulous of scientists' testimony. The further result of the lack of a thorough analysis of the evidence backing the OPV hypothesis has resulted in a missed opportunity to read The River as one of the few detailed accounts of the immense social, political, technological, and interspecies infrastructure constituted by Cold War vaccine production. This biomedical infrastructure dramatically changed the geographic and interspecies mobility of viruses in ways that may be impossible to reconstruct. Yet these potential transmission routes remain crucial to acknowledge. The COVID-19 pandemic draws attention to the critical importance of studying The WetNet, a concept coined by the author to name the conceptual and material infrastructures of inter- and intraspecies fluid bonding.

La batalla de Madrid por las vacunas antipoliomielitis (1963): ciencia, ideología y poder en la primera campaña de inmunización masiva en España / The battle in Madrid over poliomyelitis vaccines (1963): science, ideology and power in the first mass immunization campaign in Spain

Durante el sexenio de 1958 a 1963 se vivió en España el periodo de mayor incidencia de poliomielitis (2000 casos y 200 fallecidos por año). Aunque la vacuna inactivada de Salk había llegado al país en 1957, no hubo una decidida acción gubernamental para aplicarla a toda la población susceptible. La vacuna atenuada de Sabin, disponible en Europa desde 1960, tampoco se implementó. Mientras en el contexto internacional se adoptaba una u otra, en España se reprodujo la rivalidad entre ambas vacunas con un confuso resultado. Se vacunaba un bajo porcentaje de susceptibles con vacuna Salk a cargo del Seguro Obligatorio de Enfermedad (SOE), a la vez que un grupo de investigadores de la Escuela Nacional de Sanidad, encabezados por Florencio Pérez Gallardo (1917-2006), realizaban un modélico estudio epidemiológico que señalaba la conveniencia de utilizar la vacuna oral de Sabin. Llegados a 1963, el SOE puso en marcha una campaña nacional con vacuna Salk inspirada por el pediatra Juan Bosch Marín (1902-1995), representante de la estructura más conservadora del franquismo. La pugna por dilucidar qué tipo de vacuna era más conveniente se escenificó en Madrid durante los primeros meses de 1963 en distintas conferencias científicas. El grupo de Bosch Marín defendió su campaña y la vacuna Salk, mientras Pérez Gallardo hacía lo propio con la vacuna oral y obtuvo un golpe de efecto al invitar a Albert Sabin como conferenciante. A finales de año, tras una campaña piloto, se instauró la primera campaña masiva de vacunación oral contra la poliomielitis en España

Between 1958 and 1963, Spain witnessed the highest ever incidence of poliomyelitis (2000 cases and 200 deaths per year). Although Salk's inactivated vaccine had arrived in Spain in 1957, the government took no decisive action to administer it to the entire population at risk. Neither was Sabin's attenuated vaccine administered, available in Europe from 1960. While other countries adopted one or the other, in Spain rivalry arose over the two vaccines, with mixed results. The Salk vaccine was administered to a small percentage of the population at risk through the Compulsory Sickness Insurance scheme (Spanish initials: SOE), while at the same time a research team at the National School of Health led by Florencio Pérez Gallardo (1917-2006) carried out a model epidemiological study that demonstrated the superiority of the Sabin vaccine. In 1963, the SOE launched a national campaign with the Salk vaccine promoted by the paediatrician Juan Bosch Marín (1902-1995), a representative of the most conservative structure of the Franco regime. The dispute over which vaccine was best reached its peak in early 1963 at various scientific conferences in Madrid. Bosch Marín's group argued in favour of his campaign and the Salk vaccine, while Pérez Gallardo did the same for the oral vaccine, achieving a substantial impact by inviting Sabin himself to speak. By the end of the year, following a pilot study, the first mass oral vaccination campaign against polio was introduced in Spain

[The battle in Madrid over poliomyelitis vaccines (1963): science, ideology and power in the first mass immunization campaign in Spain]. / La batalla de Madrid por las vacunas antipoliomielitis (1963): ciencia, ideología y poder en la primera campaña de inmunización masiva en España.

Between 1958 and 1963, Spain witnessed the highest ever incidence of poliomyelitis (2000 cases and 200 deaths per year). Although Salk's inactivated vaccine had arrived in Spain in 1957, the government took no decisive action to administer it to the entire population at risk. Neither was Sabin's attenuated vaccine administered, available in Europe from 1960. While other countries adopted one or the other, in Spain rivalry arose over the two vaccines, with mixed results. The Salk vaccine was administered to a small percentage of the population at risk through the Compulsory Sickness Insurance scheme (Spanish initials: SOE), while at the same time a research team at the National School of Health led by Florencio Pérez Gallardo (1917-2006) carried out a model epidemiological study that demonstrated the superiority of the Sabin vaccine. In 1963, the SOE launched a national campaign with the Salk vaccine promoted by the paediatrician Juan Bosch Marín (1902-1995), a representative of the most conservative structure of the Franco regime. The dispute over which vaccine was best reached its peak in early 1963 at various scientific conferences in Madrid. Bosch Marín's group argued in favour of his campaign and the Salk vaccine, while Pérez Gallardo did the same for the oral vaccine, achieving a substantial impact by inviting Sabin himself to speak. By the end of the year, following a pilot study, the first mass oral vaccination campaign against polio was introduced in Spain.

[Chinese study and production of poliomyelitis vaccine : an interview with Gu Fangzhou].

Polio once was a problem that plagued the world in the 1950s, and it was also a serious problem in China. Chinese medical scientists such as Gu Fangzhou went abroad to study.After returned to China, they kept carrying research work and making production test in a tough environment, and developed a technical route and immunization strategy suitable for China. Therefore, in millions and tens of millions of Chinese children were kept away from polio by the sugar pill vaccine. In 2000, the World Health Organization conformed that China became polio-free country.

A forgotten chapter of Mexican technology and science: Luis Gutiérrez Villegas and poliomyelitis in Mexico. / Un capítulo olvidado de la tecnología y la ciencia mexicanas: Luis Gutiérrez Villegas y la poliomielitis en México.

Two different types of vaccines were developed against poliomyelitis: The Salk vaccine using inactivated virus and the Sabin one, that was used later, after investigations assured its safety. The first one was made in Mexico with its own resources since 1957 thanks to the efforts of young researchers and technicians coordinated by Luis Gutiérrez-Villegas, M.D., who was a Clinical Pathologist, University Professor and President of the Mexican National Academy of Mexico.

Las campañas de vacunación contra la poliomielitis en Jerez de la Frontera (1963-1965) / As campanhas de vacinação contra a poliomielite em Jerez de la Frontera (1963-1965) / Vaccination campaigns against polio in Jerez de la Frontera (1963-1965)

En el presente artículo nos hemos planteado como objetivo estudiar las dos fases de la campaña de vacunación contra la poliomielitis de los años 1963 y 1964, con la vacuna oral Sabin, en la ciudad de Jerez de la Frontera (Cádiz). Asimismo exponemos datos de la campaña de vacunación del año 1965 contra la poliomielitis, la difteria, la tos ferina y el tétanos en la referida ciudad. Hemos utilizado en nuestro estudio fuentes documentales originales del Archivo Municipal de Jerez y de otros archivos y bibliotecas de la provincia, así como prensa local, regional y nacional, que nos ofrecen información sobre las campañas de vacunación que han motivado nuestra investigación (AU)

Neste artigo temos que definir o objetivo de estudar as duas fases da campanha de vacinação contra a poliomielite em 1963 e 1964, com a vacina oral Sabin, na cidade de Jerez de la Frontera (Cádiz). Os dados também expor a campanha de vacinação contra a poliomielite em 1965, a difteria, coqueluche e tétano naquela cidade. Nós utilizado em nosso estudo fontes documentais originais Jerez Arquivos Municipais e outros arquivos e bibliotecas da província, bem como da imprensa local, regional e nacional, que nós fornecemos informações sobre as campanhas de vacinação que motivaram nossa pesquisa (AU)

The aim of this article is to study the two phases of the poliomyelitis’ vaccination campaign in the years 1963 and 1964, with the Sabin oral vaccine, in the city of Jerez de la Frontera (Cádiz). We also expound some data about the vaccination campaign in 1965 against polio, diphtheria, whooping cough and tetanus in the same city. We have used, in our study, original documents sources from Municipal Archives of Jerez, other archives and libraries of the province, as well as local, regional and national press, which have provided us some information on the mentioned vaccination campaigns (AU)

[A battle won: the elimination of poliomyelitis in Cuba]. / Una batalla ganada: la eliminación de la poliomielitis en Cuba.

Poliomyelitis was introduced in Cuba in the late nineteenth century by American residents in Isla de Pinos. The first epidemics occurred in 1906 and 1909 and increased in intensity between 1930 and 1958. The scope of the paper is to reconstruct the history of the disease and its epidemics in Cuba prior to 1961, the first National Polio Vaccination Campaign (1962) and its results, as well as analyze the ongoing annual vaccination campaigns through to certified elimination of the disease (1994). The logical historical method was used and archival documents and statistics from the Ministry of Health on morbidity and mortality through 2000 were reviewed. Gross morbidity and mortality rates were calculated and interviews with key figures were conducted.

Una batalla ganada: la eliminación de la poliomielitis en Cuba / A battle won: the elimination of poliomyelitis in Cuba

La poliomielitis fue introducida en Cuba a finales del siglo XIX por norteamericanos residentes en Isla de Pinos. Las primeras epidemias ocurrieron en 1906 y 1909, aumentaron en intensidad entre 1930-1958. El objetivo del artículo es reconstruir la historia de la enfermedad y sus epidemias en Cuba hasta 1961, de la primera Campaña Nacional de Vacunación Antipolio (1962) y de sus resultados, bien como analizar la continuidad de las campañas anuales de vacunación hasta la certificación de su eliminación (1994). Se siguió el método histórico lógico; se revisaron documentos de archivos, las estadísticas del Ministerio de Salud Pública sobre morbilidad y mortalidad hasta el 2000. Se calcularon tasas brutas de morbilidad y mortalidad. Se realizaron entrevistas a personajes claves.

Poliomyelitis was introduced in Cuba in the late nineteenth century by American residents in Isla de Pinos. The first epidemics occurred in 1906 and 1909 and increased in intensity between 1930 and 1958. The scope of the paper is to reconstruct the history of the disease and its epidemics in Cuba prior to 1961, the first National Polio Vaccination Campaign (1962) and its results, as well as analyze the ongoing annual vaccination campaigns through to certified elimination of the disease (1994). The logical historical method was used and archival documents and statistics from the Ministry of Health on morbidity and mortality through 2000 were reviewed. Gross morbidity and mortality rates were calculated and interviews with key figures were conducted.

Brunenders: a partially attenuated historic poliovirus type I vaccine strain.

Brunenders, a type I poliovirus (PV) strain, was developed in 1952 by J. F. Enders and colleagues through serial in vitro passaging of the parental Brunhilde strain, and was reported to display partial neuroattenuation in monkeys. This phenotype of attenuation encouraged two vaccine manufacturers to adopt Brunenders as the type I component for their inactivated poliovirus vaccines (IPVs) in the 1950s, although today no licensed IPV vaccine contains Brunenders. Here we confirmed, in a transgenic mouse model, the report of Enders on the reduced neurovirulence of Brunenders. Although dramatically neuroattenuated relative to WT PV strains, Brunenders remains more virulent than the attenuated oral vaccine strain, Sabin 1. Importantly, the neuroattenuation of Brunenders does not affect in vitro growth kinetics and in vitro antigenicity, which were similar to those of Mahoney, the conventional type I IPV vaccine strain. We showed, by full nucleotide sequencing, that Brunhilde and Brunenders differ at 31 nucleotides, eight of which lead to amino acid changes, all located in the capsid. Upon exchanging the Brunenders capsid sequence with that of the Mahoney capsid, WT neurovirulence was regained in vivo, suggesting a role for the capsid mutations in Brunenders attenuation. To date, as polio eradication draws closer, the switch to using attenuated strains for IPV is actively being pursued. Brunenders preceded this novel strategy as a partially attenuated IPV strain, accompanied by decades of successful use in the field. Providing data on the attenuation of Brunenders may be of value in the further construction of attenuated PV strains to support the grand pursuit of the global eradication of poliomyelitis.

[The road to polio eradication via the Pan American Health Organization]. / El camino hacia la erradicación de la poliomielitis a través de la Organización Panamericana de la Salud.

OBJECTIVE: Reconstruct the activities of the Pan American Poliomyelitis Eradication Program, through documents produced by the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) from 1985 to 1994. METHODS: Documents on polio eradication produced from 1985 to 1994, obtained through the publications portal at the official PAHO website, were used as primary sources of information. Documents were categorized by type and their contents studied, revealing their context in the framework of the history of international public health. RESULTS: Two hundred sixty documents were found and categorized as bulletins, resolutions, articles, and books. In 1985, PAHO implemented an initiative to eradicate transmission of wild poliovirus in the Americas by 1990. National commissions, a Technical Advisory Group, cross-border meetings, and other coordination mechanisms were established. Eradication activities were monitored by the International Commission for the Certification of Polio Eradication, using five indicators. The Region of the Americas was officially certified in 1994. CONCLUSIONS: The road to polio eradication in the Region of the Americas was affected by different political, social, and economic circumstances in the different member countries and was not problem-free. Nonetheless, important collaboration agreements were reached and experiences and resources were shared. This led to achieving the final goal before other regions. PAHO played a key role and spearheaded the entire process.

[Gestation and conduct of the First National Campaign of oral polio vaccination in Spain]. / Gestación y realización de la Primera Campaña Nacional de vacunación antipoliomielítica oral en España.

This paper presents the intervention of Dr Luis Valenciano Clavel in the act that was held on July 2, 2013 under the title Celebrating the 50th anniversary of the establishment of poliovirus vaccination campaigns in Spain. (Tribute to Dr D Florencio Perez Gallardo), in Ernest Lluch Hall of the Ministry of Health, Social Services and Equality. Dr Luis Valenciano Clavel describes his experience and direct participation, along with Florencio Pérez Gallardo, during the first oral polio vaccination campaign in Spain, after returning from his stay in health centers of Germany and assuming the leadership of the Polio Diagnostic Laboratory of theNational School of Public Health. The success of the polio vaccination campaign, it gave rise to the current National Center of Virology, pivot of the current Institute of Health Carlos III.

[Last phase: eradication]. / La ultima fase: la eliminación.

This article presents what is considered the last phase of the eradication of polio in Spain, which took 25 years during the period 1963-1988, in the wake of the sharp decline that occurred in the incidence of the disease by introducing Sabin attenuated vaccine in 1963. This should have led to the disappearance of the disease in a short period of time, although it was not due to decreased vaccination and epidemiological surveillance until 1976. The last indigenous case was in 1988. In 1982 Rafael Najera assumed the leadership of the National Center of Microbiology, Virology and Immunology Health, the first goal of his team was the eradication of polio from our country, introducing the criteria of WHO classification and characterization studies of intertípica virus isolates.

The final stages of the global eradication of poliomyelitis.

The global incidence of poliomyelitis has dropped by more than 99 per cent since the governments of the world committed to eradication in 1988. One of the three serotypes of wild poliovirus has been eradicated and the remaining two serotypes are limited to just a small number of endemic regions. However, the Global Polio Eradication Initiative (GPEI) has faced a number of challenges in eradicating the last 1 per cent of wild-virus transmission. The polio endgame has also been complicated by the recognition that vaccination with the oral poliovirus vaccine (OPV) must eventually cease because of the risk of outbreaks of vaccine-derived polioviruses. I describe the major challenges to wild poliovirus eradication, focusing on the poor immunogenicity of OPV in lower-income countries, the inherent limitations to the sensitivity and specificity of surveillance, the international spread of poliovirus and resulting outbreaks, and the potential significance of waning intestinal immunity induced by OPV. I then focus on the challenges to eradicating all polioviruses, the problem of vaccine-derived polioviruses and the risk of wild-type or vaccine-derived poliovirus re-emergence after the cessation of oral vaccination. I document the role of research in the GPEI's response to these challenges and ultimately the feasibility of achieving a world without poliomyelitis.